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  • MPI Ethno. Forsch.  (494)
  • Washington, D.C : The World Bank  (494)
  • Boston, MA :Safari,
  • Inequality  (279)
  • Rural Development  (262)
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  • 1
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Two Decades of Top Income Shares in Honduras (2024)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (69 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Del Carmen, Giselle Two Decades of Top Income Shares in Honduras
    Keywords: Administrative Registries ; Econometrics ; Economic Development ; Honduras ; Income ; Inequality ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Top Income
    Abstract: This paper presents distributional national accounts for Honduras over 2003-2019, using survey microdata, administrative tax records, and national account aggregates. It assembles comprehensive data on formal income for high-income individuals, including information on corporate shareholders, which allows corporate profits to be assigned to their owners. The estimates suggest a high and persistent inequality in the country: the top 1 percent highest earners received approximately 30 percent of the total income over the period, placing Honduras among the most unequal countries in the world. Undistributed corporate profits are the overwhelming income source at the very top of the distribution, highlighting its importance in the measurement of income inequality. Finally, using a panel of tax records, the paper also documents that not only is inequality persistent, but the same individuals are often observed at the top, suggesting that the observed inequality has deep roots
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10722
    URL: Deutschlandweit zugänglich
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  • 2
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Connecting People to Projects : A New Approach to Measuring Women's Employment in the Middle East and North Africa (2024)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (38 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Ragui, Assaad Connecting People to Projects: A New Approach to Measuring Women's Employment in the Middle East and North Africa
    Keywords: Employment Survey Questionnaire ; Gender ; Gender and Rural Development ; Gender Informatics ; Household Enterprises ; Labor Market Panel Surveys ; Rural Development ; Rural Labor Markets ; Survey Design ; Women's Employment
    Abstract: Innovations to date in detecting women's employment have focused primarily on improving individual-level questions. This paper explores an alternative approach, using data on household enterprises and asking who participates in these activities. This research uses the latest waves of the Labor Market Panel Surveys for the Arab Republic of Egypt (2018) and Tunisia (2014). The research questions are (1) How do men's and women's employment rates change when adding enterprise-based detection questions to standard individual-level questions (2) Was the additional market employment detected with project-based approaches classified as subsistence work with individual measurement approaches (3) For which women is additional employment detected using project-based approaches The paper presents descriptive results on work based on the different approaches. It also estimates changes in state (being reclassified as working) from adding enterprise-level data. The findings show large increases in employment rates for rural women in both countries when including enterprise-based detection questions
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10659
    URL: Deutschlandweit zugänglich
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  • 3
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Fiscal Policy, Poverty, and Inequality in a Constrained Environment : The Case of the West Bank and Gaza (2024)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (79 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Amjad, Beenish Fiscal Policy, Poverty, and Inequality in a Constrained Environment: The Case of the West Bank and Gaza
    Keywords: Cash Transfer Program ; Commitment To Equity ; Comparative Analysis ; Fiscal Policy ; Indirect Taxes ; Inequality ; Inequality Reduction ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poverty Reduction ; Tax Administration ; VAT
    Abstract: This report analyzes the distributional impacts of the main taxes and transfers on households' welfare in the West Bank and Gaza. The analysis uses the Commitment to Equity methodology, enabling comparison of the results to other countries where this framework has been applied. The report assesses the effects of government taxation, social expenditure, and indirect subsidies on poverty and inequality in the West Bank and Gaza. The results indicate that the combination of taxes and transfers modelled in the West Bank and Gaza reduces inequality by 6.5 Gini points but increases the national poverty headcount by 8.4 percentage points. These fiscal policy outcomes on poverty and inequality reduction are below average in terms of desirability compared to other lower-middle-income countries. The taxes and transfers modelled in the West Bank and Gaza achieve most inequality reduction through in-kind benefits from public basic education and public hospitals, followed by the Cash Transfer Program and the value-added tax (VAT). Their large impact on inequality reduction is explained by a combination of their progressivity and their size relative to household income. The redistributive effect of direct taxes, customs duties, and indirect subsidies is zero or close to zero. Indirect taxes represent the fiscal interventions contributing most to the increase in national poverty; customs duties followed by VAT represent the largest burden on households' incomes. Direct transfers from social protection cannot offset the impoverishment effect from indirect taxes because they have very limited coverage. Only the poorest decile is a net cash beneficiary after paying taxes and receiving cashable transfers. The rest of the deciles are net payers to the fiscal system. To decrease poverty and inequality in the West Bank and Gaza, the most significant policy recommendation to emerge from the analysis is to expand direct transfers to the second and third deciles to compensate for indirect tax burdens. Financing this reform is feasible through domestic tax mobilization or through rationalization of inefficient fuel and electricity subsidies that benefit the top income deciles most
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10687
    URL: Deutschlandweit zugänglich
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  • 4
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Fiscal Incidence on the Island : Grenada's Fiscal System and Its Incidence (2024)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (32 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Canavire Bacarreza, Gustavo Fiscal Incidence on the Island: Grenada's Fiscal System and Its Incidence
    Keywords: Consumption ; Fiscal Incidence ; Fiscal Policy Interventions ; Inequality ; Living Standards ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Public Expenditure ; Public Revenue ; Social Transfers ; Tax ; Taxation and Subsidies
    Abstract: This paper examines the distributional effects of fiscal policy in Grenada. Using data from the 2017-18 Living Conditions and Household Budgets Survey and following the Commitment to Equity analysis framework, the paper estimates the effects of fiscal policy interventions on inequality and poverty. It analyzes the distributional incidence of direct and indirect taxes, direct transfers provided by social transfers and school feeding programs, and in-kind transfers generated by public services in health and education. The results show that Grenada has a tax system that is neutral on the value-added tax side and progressive on the personal income tax side. Furthermore, direct transfers make a modest contribution to poverty reduction and are almost neutral in their distributive impact. The results contribute to the understanding of who bears the burden of taxation and benefits from transfers and of how Grenada's fiscal system can improve its redistributive effect
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10678
    URL: Deutschlandweit zugänglich
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  • 5
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Does Global Warming Worsen Poverty and Inequality? : An Updated Review (2024)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (59 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Trinh, Trong-Anh Does Global Warming Worsen Poverty and Inequality? An Updated Review
    Keywords: Chronic Poverty ; Climate Change ; Climate Change Economics ; Climate Change Mitigation and Green House Gases ; Environment ; Global Warming ; Inequality ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poverty ; Transient Poverty
    Abstract: This paper offers an updated and comprehensive review of recent studies on the impact of climate change, particularly global warming, on poverty and inequality, paying special attention to data sources as well as empirical methods. While studies consistently find negative impacts of higher temperature on poverty across different geographical regions, with higher vulnerability especially in poorer Sub-Saharan Africa, there is inconclusive evidence on climate change impacts on inequality. Further analysis of a recently constructed global database at the subnational unit level derived from official national household income and consumption surveys shows that temperature change has larger impacts in the short term and more impacts on chronic poverty than transient poverty. The results are robust to different model specifications and measures of chronic poverty and are more pronounced for poorer countries. The findings offer relevant inputs into current efforts to fight climate change
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10697
    URL: Deutschlandweit zugänglich
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  • 6
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Overcoming Left-Behindedness : Moving beyond the Efficiency versus Equity Debate in Territorial Development (2024)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (27 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Rodriguez-Pose, Andres Overcoming Left-Behindedness: Moving beyond the Efficiency versus Equity Debate in Territorial Development
    Keywords: Economic Development ; Efficiency ; Equity Territories ; Growth ; International Economics and Trade ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Regional Rural Development ; Regional Urban Development ; Regions ; Rural Development
    Abstract: Territorial development theory and practice have witnessed significant change in recent times. This change has increasingly put the spatial dimension at the center of development policies. Although agglomeration-focused policies derived from urbanization and agglomeration economics were once prominent, their empirical limitations have become increasingly apparent. Greater territorial polarization and pervasive left-behindedness have underscored the need for a more inclusive territorial development approach, prompting increased interest in understanding and addressing regional disparities to ensure more equitable economic growth. This paper synthesizes the growing interest in territorial development, which has driven the adoption of what are increasingly place-based and place-sensitive approaches to development. The paper also emphasizes the need for complementarity between efficiency-driven and equity-focused interventions, while highlighting emerging topics in regional economics research, including the role of institutions, agency, and external megatrends such as the green transition. The paper concludes by advocating a place-sensitive approach that tailors policies to regional challenges, promoting economic potential, diversification, and inclusivity across all regions
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10734
    URL: Deutschlandweit zugänglich
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  • 7
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    New Evidence on Inequality of Opportunity in Sub-Saharan Africa : More Unequal than we Thought (2024)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (49 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Atamanov, Aziz New Evidence on Inequality of Opportunity in Sub-Saharan Africa: More Unequal than we Thought
    Keywords: Circumstances ; Consumpton Inequality ; Equity and Development ; Inequality ; Inequality of Opportunity ; Poverty Reduction ; Social Development
    Abstract: Unequal access to economic opportunity for individuals with different innate characteristics, such as ethnicity or parents' socioeconomic status, is often seen as both morally undesirable and bad for economic growth. This paper estimates inequality of opportunity, or the share of inequality explained by birth characteristics, across 18 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. For many countries, this is the first time inequality of opportunity is measured. The paper uses nationally representative household survey data harmonized to allow for cross-country comparisons. Using consumption per capita as the outcome, the findings show that inequality of opportunity in Sub-Saharan Africa is stark and more pronounced than previously estimated. On average, inherited circumstances explain more than half of inequality in the region. Estimates range from 40 to 60 percent in most countries and reach 74 percent in South Africa. The findings show that birthplace, parents' education, and ethnicity tend to be the most significant contributors, but there is large variation in the importance of circumstances across countries. This represents the most comprehensive estimate of inequality of opportunity to date in the poorest and one of the most unequal regions in the world, and it underscores the pressing need for policy makers to intensify their efforts to address inequality of opportunity to foster societies that are more equitable and unlock the full potential for growth in the region
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10723
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  • 8
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Territorial Development : A Report on the Territorial Development Approach to Accelerate Economic Growth and Development in the Kingdom of Lesotho (2024)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Other Urban Study
    Keywords: Demographics and Aging ; Economic Development ; Economic Growth and Planning ; Environment ; Environment and Natural Resource Management ; Human Development and Gender ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Rural Development ; Rural Development Strategy and Policy ; Urban and Rural Development ; Urban Development ; Urban Economic Development
    Abstract: This report begins with an Executive Summary, which introduces the territorial development approach and the rationale for applying it in Lesotho's development context before going on to summarize key takeaways and recommendations. It is followed by four chapters: chapter 1, Introduction, lays out the country context, presenting in brief Lesotho's economic and demographic situation, population projections, governmental structure, and poverty profile and the government's goals. Chapter 2, territorial development framework and analysis in Lesotho, discusses the territorial development approach, its objectives, and the challenges it aims to address before presenting a customized 2 by 2 territorial framework for Lesotho and explaining how it can be applied. Chapter 3, analyzing Lesotho's Challenges through a Territorial Lens, lays out a spatial analysis centering on four development challenges: economic opportunities, internal connectivity and regional integration, access to basic services, and climate preparedness. To highlight the challenges, the chapter includes 4D heat maps linked to density, distance, disparity, and disaster risk. It also summaries case studies and real-life applications of the territorial development approach in Lesotho. Full case studies are in an annex. Chapter 4, recommendations, covers guiding principles and recommendations based on the territorial development approach and analysis
    DOI: 10.1596/41248
    URL: Deutschlandweit zugänglich
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  • 9
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Natural Resource Dependence and Monopolized Imports (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (25 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Arezki, Rabah Natural Resource Dependence and Monopolized Imports
    Keywords: Domestic Prices ; Energy ; Energy Markets ; Fuel Exporting Economies ; Imports ; Market Concentration ; Monopoloization of Imports ; Natural Resource Curse ; Natural Resources ; Rural Development ; Tariff Evasion
    Abstract: Countries with greater commodity export intensity have more concentrated markets for imported goods. Within countries over time, import market concentration is associated with higher domestic prices, suggesting that markups due to greater concentration outweigh any potential cost efficiency. Hydrocarbon fuel exporting economies especially have higher tariffs, tariff evasion, and non-tariff measures that concentrate markets. These results suggest a novel channel for the resource curse stemming from the monopolization of imports
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10339
    URL: lizenzpflichtig
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  • 10
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    The Climate Implications of Ending Global Poverty (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (45 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Wollburg, Philip The Climate Implications of Ending Global Poverty
    Keywords: Climate Change ; Climate Change Economics ; Co2 Emission Goals ; Environment and Poverty ; Greenhouse Gas Emissions ; Inequality ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poverty ; Poverty and Climate Ambitions
    Abstract: Previous studies have explored potential conflicts between ending poverty and limiting global warming, by focusing on the carbon emissions of the world's poorest. This paper instead focuses on economic growth as the driver of poverty alleviation and estimates the emissions associated with the growth needed to eradicate poverty. With this framing, eradicating poverty requires not only increasing the consumption of poor people, but also the consumption of non-poor people in poor countries. Even in this more pessimistic framing, the global emissions increase associated with eradicating extreme poverty is small, at 2.37 gigatonnes of equivalent carbon dioxide in 2050, or 4.9 percent of 2019 global emissions. These additional emissions would not materially affect the global climate change challenge: global emissions would need to be reduced by 2.08 gigatonnes of equivalent carbon dioxide per year, instead of the 2.0 gigatonnes of equivalent carbon dioxide per year needed in the absence of any extreme poverty eradication. Lower inequality, higher energy efficiency, and decarbonization of energy can significantly ease this trade-off: assuming the best historical performance in all countries, the additional emissions for poverty eradication are reduced by 90 percent. Therefore, the need to eradicate extreme poverty cannot be used as a justification for reducing the world's climate ambitions. When trade-offs exist, the eradication of extreme poverty can be prioritized with negligible emissions implications. The estimated emissions of eradicating poverty are 15.3 percent of 2019 emissions with the lower-middle-income poverty line at USD 3.65 per day and or 45.7 percent of 2019 emissions with the USD 6.85 upper-middle-income poverty line. The challenge to align the world's development and climate objectives is not in reconciling extreme poverty alleviation with climate objectives but in providing middle-income standards of living in a sustainable manner
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10318
    URL: lizenzpflichtig
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  • 11
    Online Resource
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    COVID-19 School Closures, Learning Losses and Intergenerational Mobility (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (37 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Azevedo, Joao Pedro COVID-19 School Closures, Learning Losses and Intergenerational Mobility
    Keywords: Access To Education During COVID ; COVID-19 Learning Loss ; Educational Attainment ; Educational Mobility ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Inequality ; Intergenerational Mobility
    Abstract: The paper presents a first global investigation of the longer-term inequality implications of COVID-19 by examining the effect of school closures on the ability of children from different countries and backgrounds to engage in continued learning throughout the pandemic, and their implications for intergenerational mobility in education. The analysis builds on the data from the Global Database of Intergenerational Mobility, country-specific results of the learning loss simulation model using weekly school closure information from February 2020 to February 2022, and high-frequency phone survey data collected by the World Bank during the pandemic to assess the incidence and quality of continued learning during periods of school closures across children from different backgrounds. Based on this information, the paper simulates counterfactual levels of educational attainment and corresponding absolute and relative intergenerational educational mobility measures with and without COVID-19 impacts, to arrive at estimates of COVID-19 impacts. The simulations suggest that the extensive school closures and associated learning losses are likely to have a significant impact on both absolute and relative intergenerational educational mobility in the absence of remedial measures. In upper-middle-income countries, the share of children with more years of education than their parents (absolute mobility) could decline by 8 percentage points, with the largest impacts observed in the Latin America region. Furthermore, unequal access to continued learning during school closures across children from households of different socioeconomic backgrounds (proxied by parental education levels) leads to a significant decline in relative educational mobility
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10381
    URL: lizenzpflichtig
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  • 12
    Online Resource
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    Liberian Women Count : Evidence from a Macrosimulation of the Gender Dividend (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (42 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Karra, Mahesh Liberian Women Count: Evidence from a Macrosimulation of the Gender Dividend
    Keywords: Demography ; Economic Contribution Of Women ; Economic Growth ; Gender ; Gender Dividend ; Inequality ; Macrosimulation ; Time Allocation ; Value Of Domestic Work ; Women's Empowerment ; Women's Human Capital
    Abstract: Liberian women make significant economic contributions yet are constrained from contributing even more due to their exclusion from productive opportunities. This study develops a macrosimulation model of the Gender Dividend that estimates the economic contributions of women and the societal costs incurred by excluding them. Using macroeconomic, demographic, and survey data from Liberia, the analysis finds that women were responsible for 39 percent of market-based output produced annually in 2020, equal to USD 1.08 billion, and contributed another USD 530 million in non-tradable sources of production, namely, housework and domestic chores. Using the macrosimulation model, the study estimates that if the gender gaps in labor force participation, intra-sectoral wages, and sector of employment were closed, gross domestic product would be 11.5 percent higher. If further reforms were undertaken to equalize education and reduce fertility rates to a net-reproduction rate, gross domestic product would be 23.7 percent higher. Finally, if the model also accounts for the value of non-tradable production, gross domestic product would be USD 5.89 billion, or 45.3 percent higher than today's estimates, with women being responsible for 53 percent of the labor market output. These estimates reinforce the need for a unified policy agenda that actively invests in women's human capital and work-related opportunities simultaneously
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10425
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  • 13
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    Online Resource
    Using Behavioral Science to Increase Women's Participation in Natural Resource Management in Mexico (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (36 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Reyes-Retana, Graciela Using Behavioral Science to Increase Women's Participation in Natural Resource Management in Mexico
    Keywords: Behavior Change Communication ; Deforestation Emissions ; Degradation ; Gender ; Gender and Environment ; Natural Resource Management ; Outreach Strategies ; Randomized Controlled Trial ; Reducing Emissions ; Rural Development ; Rural Gender Inclusion
    Abstract: Natural resources management (NRM) helps protect forests and promote sustainable development. Although women are key in strengthening activities in NRM, they are dramatically underrepresented in public funding for forest projects in many countries, such as Mexico, limiting their participation and impact. While structural barriers, such as land tenure and low capacity, cause this problem, this is exacerbated by barriers such as lack of information, complex application processess, gender norms, and rural women's low aspirations and limited agency and self-efficacy to participate in NRM projects. This paper tests whether additions and modifications to the standard outreach strategies of a call for proposals for NRM grants in Mexico increase the number of applications submitted by localities and the share of women participating. The study uses a randomized controlled trial in 113 rural localities, where the standard outreach approach (control) is complemented with additional information channels and simplified materials (treatment 1), aiming to appeal more directly to inexperienced populations. A second treatment group further modifies the informational materials using insights from behavioral science (loss aversion, norms framing, and others) and adds proactive text message reminders to prompt behavior (treatment 2), hoping to address the barriers to women's participation. The results suggest that treatment 1 localities had, on average, 2.3 more applications per locality than the control group (increasing the participation of both men and women). Treatment 2 complemented this, having, on average, 6.4 more women per locality participating of these applications than in treatment 1. This shows that women manifested interest in participating in these activities. A representative survey of women in the study localities (1,485 women in 52 localities) suggests that women in treatment localities were more likely to recognize the name of the project or informational materials. The analysis also suggests that the complementary strategies had no effect on the likelihood of being selected to receive a grant under the project, suggesting that additional support is needed to translate this increased interest into successful applications that would allow participation in NRM
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10419
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  • 14
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    Fit for (Re)Purpose? : A New Look at the Spatial Distribution of Agricultural Subsidies (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (35 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Ebadi, Ebad Fit for (Re)Purpose? A New Look at the Spatial Distribution of Agricultural Subsidies
    Keywords: Agriculture ; Agriculture Subsidy ; Distribution ; Environmental Degradation ; Fertilizer ; Inequality ; Nitrogen Pollution
    Abstract: Agricultural subsidies make up a large share of public budgets, exceeding 40 percent of total agricultural production value in some countries. Subsidies are often important components of government strategies to raise agricultural productivity, support agricultural households, and promote food security. They do so by reducing production costs, promoting the use of inputs or modern farming techniques, encouraging the production of certain crops, and raising household incomes. Given the magnitude of these subsidies, their distributional implications and the externalities they impose on the environment are of significant consequence. This paper uses a new spatial analysis to explore the distributional implications of agricultural output subsidies across 16 countries/regions and the distributional and select environmental implications of input subsidies across 23 countries/regions. The findings show that, relative to the spatial distribution of income, both types of subsidy are distributionally mixed. Output subsidies are relatively progressive in 10 countries/regions and regressive in six, while input subsidies are relatively progressive in 11 countries/regions, regressive in nine, and neutral in three. The results also show that input subsidy schemes significantly increase fertilizer use, particularly in richer regions within countries, leading to soil saturation of nitrogen, an indicator of accelerated environmental degradation
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10414
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  • 15
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    Estimating Road Freight Transport Costs in Eastern Europe and Central Asia using Large Shipping Data (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (28 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Iimi, Atsushi Estimating Road Freight Transport Costs in Eastern Europe and Central Asia using Large Shipping Data
    Keywords: International Economics and Trade ; Regional Integration ; Road Freight Rates ; Rural Development ; Rural Roads and Transport ; Shipping Charge Elasticity ; Shipping Cost Increase ; Supply Chain ; Trade and Transport
    Abstract: The recent global crises, such as the COVID-19 crisis, remind us of the importance of efficient transportation and logistics. Notably, however, even before the crises, some regions were already experiencing a gradual increase in freight costs, with more and more empty trucks observed. The paper recasts light on the question of how road freight costs are determined using large, unique shipping data from Eastern European and Central Asian countries. It finds that economies of scale are significant in both freight weight or load factor and distance. The elasticity with respect to freight weight is particularly high at about 0.3 to 1.0 in absolute terms. Thus, to contain trucking costs, it is important to maximize the load factor through freight consolidation at origins and destinations. The elasticity with respect to distance is relatively modest at 0.04 to 0.16 in absolute terms but still statistically significant, indicating that distance may not necessarily be a constraint on trade and regional integration. Trucking costs also decrease with driving speed, a proxy for efficiency of movements or road conditions. The elasticity is significant for food products (-0.03) and other consumer goods (-0.11). Finally, the paper finds that border crossing adds 3-4 percent to freight costs
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10533
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  • 16
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    Thriving : Making Cities Green, Resilient, and Inclusive in a Changing Climate (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (350 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als
    Keywords: Climate Change Adaptation ; Green Growth ; Inclusive ; Inequality ; Natural Capital ; Resilient Cities
    Abstract: Between 1970 and 2021, the number of people living in cities increased from 1.19 billion to 4.46 billion, while the Earth's surface temperature climbed by 1.19 degrees Celsius above its preindustrial levels. Because of the prosperity they helped generate, cities have been a major cause of this climate change. However, it is also in cities that many of the solutions to the climate crisis--in terms of both adaptation and mitigation--will be found, not least because by 2050, almost 70 percent of the world's population will call cities home. As such, cities are the key to arguably the greatest public policy challenge of our times. To take stock of how green, how resilient, and how inclusive cities globally are today, 'Thriving: Making Cities Green, Resilient, and Inclusive in a Changing Climate' defines a global typology of more than 10,000 cities. It finds that there is wide variation in how green, resilient, and inclusive cities are around the world. It asks how climate change impacts cities and, conversely, how cities affect climate. Vicious cycles in development could occur as cities become more vulnerable to extreme events and the challenges compound and cascade. Finally, this report provides a compass for policy makers on policies that can help cities not only survive but also thrive in the face of the perils of climate change. Policy makers can and must act now to chart a more sustainable trajectory
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  • 17
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    Informality in Indonesia : Levels, Trends, and Features (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (39 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Hapsari, Indira Maulani Informality in Indonesia: Levels, Trends, and Features
    Keywords: Agricultural Informality ; Cross-Country Informality Analysis ; Employment ; Growth ; Informality ; Macroeconomics ; Rural Development ; Rural Labor Markets
    Abstract: Informality is a multidimensional development challenge with features that potentially differ across workers, firms, and countries. This paper first briefly summarizes the literature, discusses the multiple existing definitions of informality, and adapts the cross-country analytical framework on informality to the context of Indonesia. It then uses several novel datasets and a range of modeling approaches to capture the levels and trends of both output and employment informality in Indonesia. It further contributes to the existing literature by estimating informality in Indonesia at the regional, provincial, and sectoral levels. Those estimates were then benchmarked to the levels, trends, and features of the informal sector in emerging markets and developing economies to examine whether the major features of the informal sector in Indonesia deviate from those observed in other emerging markets and developing economies. The paper finds that despite the declining trend, both output and employment informality remain elevated and broadly above the comparator countries in the region. Informality in Indonesia is mostly concentrated in agriculture and low-skilled services and is associated with higher poverty at the provincial level. There also appear to be productivity, education, and salary gaps between formal and informal workers. Moreover, markets are not segregated as informal firms compete strongly with formal ones. Finally, informality seems to pose macroeconomic challenges as tax efforts and financial sector depth remain below the averages for emerging markets and developing economies
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10586
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  • 18
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    Delivering Digital G2P Payments to Urban Informal Populations : Lessons and Future Policy Implications from COVID-19 Responses (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: 2153
    Keywords: Access To Digital Infrastructure ; Access To Financial Infrastructure ; Digital Divide ; Government To Person Payments (G2P) ; Information and Communication Technologies ; Poverty Reduction ; Rural Development ; Rural Development Strategy and Policy ; Social Protection Rapid Deployment ; Urban Informal Sector ; Urban Partnerships and Poverty ; Urban Poverty ; Use of Big Data
    Abstract: The COVID-19 response in many Sub-Saharan African countries included the rapid deployment of social protection programs leveraging digital systems to counteract the income losses that were disproportionately experienced by urban informal populations. Using data from three in-depth country case studies, this paper finds that these digital government-to-person (G2P) payments contributed to countries reaching beneficiaries quickly and safely and that G2P payments may be particularly viable in urban, as compared to rural, areas due to greater access to digital and financial infrastructure, creative use of big data, and population density that allows for mass communication. However, there are still pockets of exclusion in urban areas emerging from incomplete digital access, limited financial inclusion, underdeveloped financial ecosystems, and high population mobility. It is particularly challenging to identify, communicate with, assess, and deliver G2P services to informal workers in urban areas due to their non-registration status, variable income flows, the blending of the home and household enterprises into a single entity, and the governments' limited experience in identifying eligible beneficiaries within this segment. While adopting a digital G2P architecture provides a promising avenue to strengthen the safety nets for this segment in the region, exclusion challenges remain. Given the ubiquity of urban informality in the region, countries will need to work to include the urban informal in foundational digital systems, such as national IDs and social registries, adopt flexible regulatory and hybrid delivery models to address the sector's varied needs, and seek to foster robust digital payment ecosystems to maximize the potential for spillover benefits
    DOI: 10.1596/40422
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  • 19
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    Shifting Spousal Decision-Making Patterns : Whom you Target in an Agricultural Intervention Matters (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (53 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Bedi, Tara Shifting Spousal Decision-Making Patterns: Whom you Target in an Agricultural Intervention Matters
    Keywords: Africa Gender Innovation Lab ; Agricultural Knowledge and Information Systems ; Agriculture ; Family Agriculture ; Gender ; Gender and Rural Development ; Gender Difference ; Gendered Decision Making ; Innovation Fund ; Rural Development ; Targeting Agriculture Interventions
    Abstract: Does it matter whether poverty reduction programs target the female or male spouse? A randomized controllled trial in Ethiopia is used to study the differential impacts of easing information and financial constraints on agricultural productivity and household welfare, using data from 1,214 households in two regions of Ethiopia. The program targeted the husband, the wife, or both in a married household. The results indicate that the targeted spouse determines the type and channel of impacts. Targeting both spouses increased agricultural productivity in the short run and the monetary value of small ruminants and poultry in the long run, with a marginal positive impact on nonfood expenditure. Targeting only the female spouse resulted in increased business income from businesses with female involvement. This consequently increased household use of formal savings devices. This is in line with female preferences outside agriculture and for off-farm activities, and it results in little impact on agricultural productivity, despite an increase in women's access to extension services. Targeting only the male spouse has no impact on household savings or expenditure even though it increases men's wage income. The results suggest that the sharing of knowledge about the intervention changed household decisions. This would explain the different outcomes when both spouses were targeted, rather than only one
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10651
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  • 20
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    Efficiency and Equity in Urban Flood Management Policies : A Systematic Urban Economics Exploration (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (28 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Liotta, Charlotte Efficiency and Equity in Urban Flood Management Policies: A Systematic Urban Economics Exploration
    Keywords: Climate Change ; Climate Change Impacts ; Communities and Human Settlements ; Disaster Risk Management ; Environment ; Flood Control ; Hazard Risk Management ; Inequality ; Land Use Zoning ; Municipal and Civil Engineering ; Risk-Based Insurance ; Subsidized Insurance ; Urban Development ; Urban Economics ; Urban Floods ; Urban Housing and Land Settlements ; Urban Poverty ; Welfare
    Abstract: Flood exposure is likely to increase in the future as a direct consequence of more frequent and more intense flooding and the growth of populations and economic assets in flood-prone areas. Low-income households, which are more likely to be located in high-risk zones, will be particularly affected. This paper assesses the welfare and equity impacts of three flood management policies-risk-based insurance, zoning, and subsidized insurance-using an urban economics framework with two income groups and three potential flood locations. The paper shows that in a first-best setting, risk-based insurance maximizes social welfare. However, depending on flood characteristics, implementing a zoning policy or subsidized insurance is close to optimal and can be more feasible. Subsidizing insurance reduces upward pressure on housing rents but increases flood damage, and is recommended for rare floods occurring in a large part of a city. Zoning policies have the opposite effect, avoiding damage but increasing housing rents, and are recommended for frequent floods in small areas. The social welfare impact of choosing the wrong flood management policy depends on the location of floods relative to employment centers, with flooding close to employment centers being particularly harmful. Implementing flood management policies redistributes flood costs between high- and low-income households through land markets, irrespective of who is directly affected. As such, they are progressive in terms of equity, compared to a laissez-faire scenario with myopic anticipations, in the more common scenario where poorer populations are more exposed to urban floods. But their impacts on inequality depend on flood locations and urban configuration. For instance, in a city where floods are centrally located and low-income households live in the city center, subsidized insurance would mitigate a surge in inequality, whereas a zoning policy could substantially increase inequalities
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10292
    URL: lizenzpflichtig
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  • 21
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    Price Adjustments and Poverty Measurement (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (51 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Amendola, Nicola Price Adjustments and Poverty Measurement
    Keywords: Cost-Of-Living Differences ; Household Income and Expenditure Survey ; Inequality ; Inflation ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poverty ; Poverty Measurement ; Price Adjustment ; Price Indexes
    Abstract: Measuring poverty entails making interpersonal welfare comparisons, that should account for differences in prices faced by households, both over time and across space. This paper investigates the impact of seemingly minor differences in the practical implementation of price adjustments, by developing an analytical framework that is consistent with standard consumer theory and mindful of the data limitations faced by practitioners. The main result is at odds with common sense: even when multiple price indexes are available, say a food and a nonfood Consumer Price Index, it turns out that using a single price index, the total Consumer Price Index, to adjust the consumption aggregate is recommended. The practice of adjusting the components of the consumption aggregate separately, using matching deflators-food expenditure with the food index and nonfood expenditure with the nonfood index-can lead to a systematic bias in the welfare measure, and consequently in poverty and inequality measures. The direction of the bias can be easily predicted based on the price level and household consumption patterns. On the interplay between spatial and temporal deflation, the findings show that temporal deflation should be carried out before implementing adjustments to spatial cost-of-living differences. The paper illustrates these findings using the Islamic Republic of Iran's 2019 Household Income and Expenditure survey: the bias in the headcount poverty rate due to incorrect deflation is substantive (5-10 percent for estimates at the national level, 15-20 percent in urban and rural areas, and more than 30 percent for district-level headcount rates). Higher-order Foster-Greer-Thorbecke poverty measures are even more affected
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10426
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  • 22
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    The ABCs of the Role of Public Transport in Women's Economic Empowerment (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (54 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Alam, Muneeza Mehmood The ABCs of the Role of Public Transport in Women's Economic Empowerment
    Keywords: Access To Employment ; Female Employment ; Gender ; Gender and Economic Policy ; Gender Barriers ; Inequality ; Public Transit ; Transport and Women's Labor Market Outcome ; Transport Mobility
    Abstract: There is increasing recognition that deficiencies in the public transport system impact men and women differently. While transport systems have been shown to play a significant role in women's participation in the labor force globally, this topic has been little explored in the Middle East and North Africa. This paper examines the effect of the spatial accessibility, availability, and safety of public transportation on women's labor market outcomes in three capital cities in the Middle East and North Africa-Amman in Jordan, Beirut in Lebanon, and Cairo in the Arab Republic of Egypt. The analysis uses three types of data collected for each city in 2022, namely, household mobility surveys, transit network data, and built environment audits. The paper investigates how the spatial accessibility of jobs in each city, the availability of public transportation close to residential locations, and the safety of public transit stops affect the labor force participation of women and their likelihood of employment. The main findings are that: (a) accessibility, availability, and safety appear to impact women's labor force participation differentially in each city, and these impacts also vary by income level; and (b) although accessibility, availability, and safety appear to impact women's labor force participation, they have overall little impact on women's employment probability. The paper takes these two findings to imply that: (a) a one-size-fits-all-women solution is not appropriate when designing public transport systems; and (b) although public transport plays a critical role in improving women's access to employment opportunities, complementary actions are needed to translate these gains into gainful employment
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10404
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  • 23
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    Does Hotter Temperature Increase Poverty and Inequality? : Global Evidence from Subnational Data Analysis (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (83 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Dang, Hai-Anh H Does Hotter Temperature Increase Poverty and Inequality? Global Evidence from Subnational Data Analysis
    Keywords: Climate Change Inequity ; Inequality ; Poverty and Environment ; Poverty Reduction ; Subnational Data ; Temperature
    Abstract: Despite a vast literature documenting the harmful effects of climate change on various socio-economic outcomes, little evidence exists on the global impacts of hotter temperature on poverty and inequality. Analysis of a new global panel dataset of subnational poverty in 134 countries finds that a one-degree Celsius increase in temperature leads to a 9.1 percent increase in poverty, using the USD 1.90 daily poverty threshold. A similar increase in temperature causes a 1.4 percent increase in the Gini inequality index. The paper also finds negative effects of colder temperature on poverty and inequality. Yet, while poorer countries-particularly those in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa-are more affected by climate change, household adaptation could have mitigated some adverse effects in the long run. The findings provide relevant and timely inputs for the global fight against climate change as well as the current policy debate on the responsibilities of richer countries versus poorer countries
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10466
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  • 24
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    Agglomeration Economies and Transport Connectivity Revisited : A Regional Perspective based on Evidence from the Caucasus and Central Asian Countries (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (31 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Iimi, Atsushi Agglomeration Economies and Transport Connectivity Revisited: A Regional Perspective based on Evidence from the Caucasus and Central Asian Countries
    Keywords: Dynamic Panel Data Regression ; Firm Agglomeration ; International Economics and Trade ; Local Market Accessibility ; Regional Connectivity ; Rural Development ; Rural Roads and Transport ; Trade and Regional Integration ; Trade and Transport ; Transport Connectivity ; Urban Development
    Abstract: Transport connectivity is an important determinant of agglomeration economies and urbanization. However, measuring its impacts is a complex task when causality is considered. An important empirical challenge comes from potential endogeneity of infrastructure placement. To deal with the endogeneity problem, first, the paper constructs detailed georeferenced connectivity measurements based on micro shipping data collected over 10 years. Then, the system generalized method of moments regression is applied. Using unique data from the Caucasus and Central Asian countries, the paper estimates the impact of transport connectivity on agglomeration economies. It finds that agglomeration economies are significant and persistent in the region. Thus, the existing firm clusters are likely to continue growing. However, a constraint is also found. Large cities exhibit congestion diseconomies. Finally, the paper shows that the improvement of transport connectivity, especially local market accessibility, has a significant effect on agglomeration. By contrast, no clear evidence to support the impact of improved regional connectivity on agglomeration is observed yet. To take full advantage of agglomeration economies at the regional level, further efforts may be needed, for instance, toward increasing efficiency in transportation and logistics, improving the freight load, and/or reducing the time and costs of border crossing, which add to overall transport costs and times
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10534
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  • 25
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    Revisiting the Distributive Impacts of Fiscal Policy in Colombia (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (91 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Baquero, Juan Pablo Revisiting the Distributive Impacts of Fiscal Policy in Colombia
    Keywords: Distributiveimpact of Taxes ; Equity and Development ; Fiscal and Monetary Policy ; Fiscal Policy ; Inequality ; Law and Development ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poverty and Fiscal Policy ; Poverty Reduction ; Social Spending Impact Inequality ; Tax Law ; Transfer Impact on Poverty
    Abstract: Colombia is one of the most unequal countries in the region and the world. Given the redistributive role of fiscal policy, this study uses recent data from the 2021 Integrated Household Survey to explore the impacts of taxes and spending on poverty and inequality in Colombia. The study introduces innovations to the literature on Colombia, including an update of the fiscal microsimulation model to reflect the most recent economic context; an introduction of new fiscal policy parameters, such as gasoline subsidies and carbon taxes; and methodological improvements. The results show positive redistributive impacts, but these are considerably lower than those seen in other country members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Direct taxes and transfers reduce the Gini index from 0.543 to 0.505; and direct taxes, indirect taxes, subsidies, and monetary transfers reduce total poverty from 42.1 to 40.2 percent and extreme poverty from 16.1 to 11.7 percent. Direct taxes, transfers, and subsidies are progressive and contribute to poverty reduction, while indirect taxes such as the value-added tax or consumption tax are regressive and do not reduce poverty. This reflects a tax system that is progressive, but not progressive enough (with a low proportion of the population with high levels of income contributing), and cash transfer and subsidy programs that have room for improvement in their targeting
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10520
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  • 26
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    Togo Jobs Diagnostic : Confronting Challenges and Creating Opportunities for More Good Quality Jobs for All (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Other Social Protection Study
    Keywords: Agricultural Sector ; Agricultural Sector Economics ; Agriculture ; Gender ; Gender and Development ; Gender Disparities ; Inequality ; Informal Workers ; Jobs Diagnostic ; Labor Disparities ; Labor Markets ; Labor Standards ; Labor Supply ; Poverty Reduction ; Social Protections and Labor
    Abstract: Good quality jobs are key to accelerating poverty reduction and enhancing social cohesion in Togo. Following a decade of significant progress in reducing poverty, the COVID-19 pandemic and of Russia's invasion of Ukraine are likely to have reversed some of these gains in living standards, however. The creation of more good quality jobs plays a key role in any country's poverty reduction efforts, and will be essential to recover from recent shocks and reinforce earlier gains made in Togo. International research also points to lack of economic opportunities and insufficient social services as key drivers of radicalization of young people. Security threats in the northern region of the country have been growing, with terrorist attacks in Burkina Faso close to the Togolese border increasing in number and severity since 2018, and a first attack reported on Togolese territory in November 2021 in the Savanes region. Access to good quality jobs with a stable income for young Togolese will thus also be part of the solution to the security threats
    DOI: 10.1596/40150
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  • 27
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    The Effects of Fiscal Policy on Inequality and Poverty in Iraq (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (55 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Amjad, Beenish The Effects of Fiscal Policy on Inequality and Poverty in Iraq
    Keywords: Committment To Equity Model ; Fiscal and Monetary Policy ; Fiscal Incidence ; Fiscal Policy ; Inequality ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Social Development ; Social Expenditure ; Social Inclusion and Institutions ; Social Protections and Labor ; Taxes
    Abstract: This study assesses the distributional impacts of public expenditures and taxes on poverty and inequality in the Republic of Iraq. The analysis uses the Commitment to Equity methodology and is based on the survey and government fiscal administrative data for fiscal year 2017. Results from the analysis show that Iraq's fiscal policy is modestly progressive. It reduces short-term inequality by 6.7 and 3.0 Gini points with and without including public spending on education and health services. Both results are less than the global and upper-middle-income country averages. However, driven by direct transfers from poverty targeted social safety net cash transfers and generous pension allowances, the fiscal system reduces short-term poverty by 5 percentage points when evaluated using the international poverty line of USD 5.5. This is one of the largest in the global and upper-middle-income country databases. These positive short-term results are achieved primarily because households pay almost no taxes. Iraq's tax revenues are far lower than even the lower-income countries' average. Unlike in most countries, Iraqi households in all quintiles, even the richest, are net beneficiaries of the fiscal policy. Given oil price volatility and the global movement away from fossil fuels, the high oil dependence and lack of a broader revenue base pose a significant fiscal sustainability challenge in Iraq
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10588
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  • 28
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    Business Size, Development, and Inequality in Latin America : A Tale of one Tail (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (31 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Eslava, Marcela Business Size, Development, and Inequality in Latin America: A Tale of one Tail
    Keywords: Business Size ; Developing Economies Business Data ; Economic Growth ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Firm-Level Datasets ; Income Inequality ; Inequality ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Micro-Enterprises ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Private Sector Economics ; Self-Employment
    Abstract: Using official employment surveys for 45 advanced economies and Latin American countries, this paper shows that the positive cross-country correlation between business size and GDP per capita is tighter than previously found using firm-level datasets and finds a close negative business size-Gini relationship. The paper also finds a closer connection between individual income and business size for workers in less developed countries compared with those in advanced economies. Because employment data address the bias against the smallest productive units that characterize firm-level datasets, our approach uniquely assesses and highlights the dominance of the left tail of the business size distribution in less developed countries
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10584
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  • 29
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    Spatial Misallocation of Complementary Infrastructure Investment : Evidence from Brazil (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (58 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Perez-Sebastian, Fidel Spatial Misallocation of Complementary Infrastructure Investment: Evidence from Brazil
    Keywords: Electric Power ; Electrical Grid ; Energy ; Infrastructure Economics ; Infrastructure Economics and Finance ; Infrastructure Investment Allocation ; Local Return on Infrastructure Investment ; Public Roads ; Rural Development ; Rural Roads and Transport ; Spatial Misallocation
    Abstract: How does the misallocation of complementary public capital affect the spatial organization of economic activity To answer this question, this paper endogenizes the government's decision to invest in the transport and electricity networks. A novel multi-sector quantitative spatial equilibrium model incorporates the quality of the electric power and the road transportation infrastructure networks, which determine sectoral productivities and trade costs. Simulation results for the Brazilian economy point to significant welfare gains from reallocating infrastructure investment. Spatial and fiscal complementarities in heterogeneous infrastructure provision determine a sizeable part of those gains. Misallocation of both infrastructure investments is positively associated with local political support for the incumbent authority
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10650
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  • 30
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    Natural Disaster, Infrastructure, and Income Distribution : Empirical Evidence from Global Data (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (39 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Song, Ze Natural Disaster, Infrastructure, and Income Distribution: Empirical Evidence from Global Data
    Keywords: Counterfactual Estimation Technique ; Empirical Studies ; Environment ; Environmental Disasters and Degradation ; Income Inequality ; Inequality ; Infrastructure Development ; Infrastructure Economics ; Infrastructure Economics and Finance ; Natural Disasters ; Poverty Reduction
    Abstract: Natural disasters--such as flooding, hurricanes, and earthquakes--have, on average, affected 130 million people and caused more than 40,000 deaths annually worldwide over the past three decades. The average annual value of property damage is estimated at more than 90 billion dollars globally. Corresponding relief and reconstruction packages measuring in billions of dollars over the past three decades have brought large new investments and the formation of new capital assets. The literature has debated the distributional impacts of natural disasters across households by income group. Most studies focus on a specific country or region, and the findings do not converge. Some find that natural disasters reduce income inequality, while others report the opposite. This study adds new empirical evidence on the impacts of natural disasters on income inequality by pooling data from 130 countries for 1990-2017. The study employs the generalized synthetic control method, which involves identifying the causal effects by comparing the actual post-disaster Gini index for treated countries with a counterfactual. The data are from the EM-DAT database maintained by the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters and covers 70 percent of natural disasters globally. The key finding of the study is that catastrophic natural disasters have negative relationships with inequality, as measured by the Gini index, in both the short and long run. The study also discusses potential mechanisms, such as physical infrastructure, disruptive creation, institutions, political revolution, and financial aid, to further explain findings from the empirical analysis
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10504
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  • 31
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    Alternative Delivery Channels and Impacts : Agent Banking (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (25 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Buri, Sinja Alternative Delivery Channels and Impacts: Agent Banking
    Keywords: Access To Banking ; Access To Finance ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Inclusion ; Financial Literacy ; Microfinance ; Microfinance Channel Development ; Microfinance Product Development ; Rural Development ; Transformation of Microfinance Institutions
    Abstract: This paper reviews evidence on agent networks of microfinance institutions and other financial services providers, which have expanded rapidly in recent years in some low- and middle-income contexts. There is emerging evidence that clients become more financially active as a result of the convenience and security of transacting with agents, especially with respect to depositing, withdrawing, and transferring funds. Agent networks could also help increase the savings of low-income clients, although evidence suggests that commitment devices may also be required, and there is little evidence that agents expand credit to clients, although they can facilitate loan repayment. Building on their physical and social proximity to customers, agents can become a potential gateway for expanding and deepening financial inclusion, but the pricing of agent transactions and consumer protection remain important considerations
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10290
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  • 32
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    Social Cohesion and Forced Displacement : A Synthesis of New Research (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Other Social Protection Study
    Keywords: Conflict and Development ; Forced Displacement ; Host Communities ; Inequality ; Living Standards ; Poverty Reduction ; Social Cohesion ; Social Conflict Prevention
    Abstract: This report presents new evidence from 26 background studies on forced displacement and social cohesion to expand the current knowledge base on how to prevent social conflict and promote social cohesion in forced displacement contexts. The background studies are geographically and methodologically diverse. They examine social cohesion in a variety of low-, middle-, and high-income countries across Africa, Asia, Central, and South America, and Europe. Building on this new evidence, the report provides lessons on how development investments and policies can reduce inequalities, alleviate social tensions, and promote social cohesion between and within displaced populations and host communities. Overall, the findings demonstrate that, while displacement can exacerbate existing inequalities and create new inequalities and the potential for conflict, especially in areas with strained services and limited economic opportunities, inclusive policies and development investments can effectively mitigate the negative effects of displacement and promote social cohesion
    DOI: 10.1596/38431
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  • 33
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    Philippine Jobs Report : Shaping a Better Future for the Filipino Workforce (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Other ESW Reports
    Keywords: Attracting Business Investment ; Business Environment ; Employment Policy ; Job Generation and Creation ; Jobs Policy ; Labor and Employment Law ; Labor Market Regulations ; Law and Development ; Private Sector Development ; Remittances ; Rural Development ; Rural Labor Markets ; Skills Development and Labor Force Training ; Social Protections and Labor
    Abstract: Shaping a Better Future for the Filipino Workforce aims to inform jobs policy by examining key determinants and outcomes of jobs. Jobs are created when the macroeconomic environment is conducive and policies are predictable to businesses with sustained growth, trades, and investments. At the same time, a large body of literature also shows that economic growth alone is not sufficient for generating jobs. Jobs are created when firms pursue expansion through innovation and competitiveness and demand for more labor input, while workers' skills and human capital are able to meet the needs of firms. Intrahousehold resource allocation and decisions for labor supply also affect the jobs outcomes. It is not uncommon that workers as self-employed create jobs by initiating their own business. The market clearing process of labor is then affected by labor market institutions, most notably labor market regulations and labor policies and programs. These are key determinants of how easy it is to start a business or to hire a worker, how high labor costs are, and how efficiently firms and workers are matched. Part I looks into the country's labor market in chronological order, while Part II discusses three major areas of Philippine jobs - labor regulation, international migration, and emerging demands for green and digital jobs
    DOI: 10.1596/39600
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  • 34
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    Labor Market Effects of Global Supply Chain Disruptions (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (47 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Ulate, Mauricio Labor Market Effects of Global Supply Chain Disruptions
    Keywords: COVID Impact On Labor Market ; Downward Nominal Wage Rigidity ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth, Rural Labor Markets, Supply Chain Disruption ; Pandemic Labor Market Impact ; Rural Development ; Social Protections and Labor ; Trade Cost ; US Labor Force Participation Decline
    Abstract: This paper examines the labor market consequences of recent global supply chain disruptions induced by COVID-19. Specifically, it considers a temporary increase in international trade costs similar to the one observed during the pandemic and analyzes its effects on labor market outcomes using a quantitative trade model with downward nominal wage rigidities. Even omitting any health-related impacts of the pandemic, the increase in trade costs leads to a temporary but prolonged decline in U.S. labor force participation. However, there is a temporary increase in manufacturing employment as the United States is a net importer of manufactured goods, which become costlier to obtain from abroad. By contrast, service and agricultural employment experience temporary declines. Nominal frictions lead to temporary unemployment when the shock dissipates, but this depends on the degree of monetary accommodation. Overall, the shock results in a 0.14 percent welfare loss for the United States. The impact on labor force participation and welfare across countries varies depending on the initial degree of openness and sectoral deficits
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10434
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    Plastic Waste in Road Construction - A Path Worth Paving? : Application of Dry Process in South Asia (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Other Environmental Study
    Keywords: Environment ; Environmental Crisis ; Environmental Sustainability ; Infrastructure Economics and Finance ; Infrastructure Regulation ; Municipal and Civil Engineering ; Plastic Marine Pollution ; Plastic Recycling Use ; Road Construction ; Rural Development ; Rural Roads and Transport, Circular Plastic Economy ; Urban Development, Environmental Engineering
    Abstract: As global plastic waste continues to grow, the global community is coalescing to reduce plastic waste. Some stakeholders are also exploring new options to use plastic waste as partial substitute for raw material. The use of plastic waste as a bitumen modifier in road construction, referred to here as 'plastic roads', is one option being explored. We reviewed the scientific literature, news articles, and patents; conducted a cost-effectiveness analysis; and interviewed representatives from private companies and independent, scientific researchers to determine the existing knowledge gaps regarding the (1) technology feasibility, including engineering performance; (2) environmental issues; (3) occupational health; (4) economic viability; and (5) industry standards surrounding plastic roads. We found that many companies are starting to implement or pilot this technology worldwide though key gaps in engineering performance, such as cracking resistance, remain. The environmental issues reviewed also have research gaps, including the generation of hazardous air pollutants during production; microplastics and nanoplastics generation during use; and leaching of additives from plastic waste during use. Industry standards for the use of plastic waste in road construction are lacking. In addition, there is prevailing uncertainty in the economic viability of the technology. As a result of these key research gaps, the Ways Forward section presents a roadmap for short- and longterm research priorities
    DOI: 10.1596/39839
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    Fiscal Policy and Equity : Vietnam 2018 Fiscal Incidence Analysis (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (33 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Rodriguez, Laura Fiscal Policy and Equity: Vietnam 2018 Fiscal Incidence Analysis
    Keywords: Equity and Development ; Fiscal Incidende ; Inequality ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Social Protections and Assistance ; Social Protections and Labor ; Social Spending ; Taxation ; Transfers
    Abstract: This paper examines the distributive and poverty reducing effects of Vietnam's fiscal system in 2018. The paper looks at the incidence across the distribution and the effect of (direct and indirect) taxes, subsidies, and social spending (in cash and in-kind) on inequality and poverty in Vietnam using the Commitment to Equity methodology. The overall pattern of taxes and transfers in Vietnam is moderately progressive, but most households pay more in taxes and co-payments than what they receive in cash benefits, and the fiscal system results in a small increase in poverty. The progressivity of the fiscal system and its inequality-reduction impact mostly comes from in-kind health and education spending. This reduction in inequality is about average for lower-middle-income countries, but Vietnam could do more to increase the progressivity of its fiscal system
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10538
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  • 37
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    The Enduring Impacts of a Big Push during Multiple Crises : Experimental Evidence from Afghanistan (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (45 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Bedoya, Guadalupe The Enduring Impacts of a Big Push during Multiple Crises: Experimental Evidence from Afghanistan
    Keywords: Big Push Poverty Reduction Strategy ; Extreme Poverty Intervention ; Gender ; Gender and Economic Policy ; Gender and Poverty ; Livestock Ownership ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction Strategy ; Productive Asset Transfer ; Reproducibile Research Repository ; Rural Development ; Women's Empowerment
    Abstract: How do proven strategies to improve the economic conditions of ultra-poor households hold up against the increasing severity and co-incidence of economic, security, and climate shocks Five years after receiving an economic livelihoods package, and shortly prior to the 2021 regime change, "ultra-poor" women in Afghanistan continued to have significantly higher levels of consumption, assets, market work participation, financial inclusion, children's school enrollment, and women's psychological well-being and empowerment, relative to the control group. Households boost resilience by diversifying productive activities and the program improves equality by reducing the gaps between ultra-poor and non-ultra- poor households across multiple dimensions. The results illustrate how an increasingly popular approach to improve the conditions of the very poor through a one-off "big push" intervention can strengthen household resilience through multiple shocks in one of the most fragile settings worldwide
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10596
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  • 38
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    Tracing Pandemic Impacts in the Absence of Regular Survey Data : What have we Learned from the World Bank's High-Frequency Phone Surveys? (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (56 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Brunckhorst, Ben Tracing Pandemic Impacts in the Absence of Regular Survey Data: What have we Learned from the World Bank's High-Frequency Phone Surveys?
    Keywords: Covid-19 Impacts ; Gender ; Gender and Public Expenditures ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; High-Frequency Phone Survey ; Household Questionnaire Design ; Household Welfare ; Inequality ; Labor Markets ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Social Protections and Labor ; Survey Method
    Abstract: The World Bank's High-Frequency Phone Surveys were deployed to support the monitoring of household welfare during the COVID-19 pandemic, when most of the regular household survey data collection was suspended. This paper reviews the analytical insights gained from the High-Frequency Phone Survey data, including uneven dynamics of household welfare during the pandemic across and within countries, as well as novel applications to simulate estimates of poverty and intergenerational mobility following the pandemic. The paper further derives lessons from the data collection experience. First, phone surveys, while inexpensive and quick, require reliable sampling frames. The predominant sampling strategies-previous household survey and random digit dialing-each have pros and cons in terms of representativeness, non-response, and post-survey adjustments. Second, on questionnaire design, country customization needs to be carefully balanced against standardization when cross-country comparisons are likely to be important. Finally, baseline metrics are critical for crisis monitoring; this requires more frequent welfare monitoring and better alignment of questions in phone surveys and existing data sources. While phone surveys can be a reliable toolkit for researchers and governments, more research is needed on key questions related to the survey mode effect, and the implications of different sampling frames and questionnaire design
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10585
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  • 39
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    (Perceptions of) Inequality, Demand for Redistribution, and Group-Specific Public Goods : A Survey Experiment in India (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (34 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Bussolo, Maurizio (Perceptions of) Inequality, Demand for Redistribution, and Group-Specific Public Goods: A Survey Experiment in India
    Keywords: Biased Perceptions ; Community ; Distribution ; Income ; Inequality ; Living Standards ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Personal Wealth ; Poverty Reduction ; Public Goods ; Redistribution
    Abstract: This paper uses data from a survey of 116,061 households in India to study people's beliefs about inequality and demand for redistribution. The findings show that a household's beliefs about inequality, implied by the perception of their position on the income distribution, is negatively correlated with support for reducing inequality. This is relevant since there are significant differences between where individuals believe their household stands and their actual position, with the gap between perceived and actual position exceeding two deciles on average. Despite these large differences, informing individuals of their household's position on the income distribution has no discernible effect on support for reducing inequality. The paper posits that demand for redistribution may be unresponsive to this information because it is based on exclusively on household's income and does not account for the sharing of resources within communities. In communities where group-specific public goods, such as religious and social goods, are present, class antagonism and redistribution are mitigated by community solidarity. Households benefit from these goods, and such benefits alter the individuals' beliefs of inequality. Consistent with this prediction, the average individual perceives their household as richer in districts with a greater supply of religious or social goods. The sharing of resources within religious or ethnic groups can shape perceptions of the income distribution and reduce support for redistribution within these groups, and thus requires serious consideration in studies of inequality
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10505
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  • 40
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    Malaysia Economic Monitor, October 2023 : Raising the Tide, Lifting All Boats (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: 2193
    Keywords: Banking Sector ; Economic Growth ; Fiscal and Monetary Policy ; Fiscal Space ; Growth ; Income Inequality ; Inequality ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poverty Reduction ; Reforms
    Abstract: Global economic activity registered resilient growth in early 2023 but is losing momentum. Advanced economies growth slowed less-than-anticipated inearly 2023 as tight labor markets drove wages up, preventing a sharp decline in consumption. However, global growth slowed slightly in Q2 2023, with services growth cooling gradually and manufacturing remaining soft. Global inflation has moderated in recent months, largely reflecting favorable base effects from commodity prices falling below their 2022 peaks, along with abating supply chain pressures. Global trade in services strengthened in 1H 2023 thanks to the easing of mobility restrictions but trade in goods slowed due to weakening global industrial production
    DOI: 10.1596/40441
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  • 41
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    Are the Poorest Catching Up? (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (47 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Cust, James Are the Poorest Catching Up?
    Keywords: Convergence ; Development Economics ; Economic Growth ; Extreme Poverty ; Income ; Inequality ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poverty Data ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Reduction
    Abstract: Are global incomes converging or diverging Despite recent empirical evidence supporting the hypothesis of unconditional beta convergence, this paper argues that such findings overlook the stark reality facing the world's poorest people. Many lower income countries, including those among the so-called "Bottom Billion," continue to slip further behind the rest of the world, while the numbers of those living in extreme poverty are beginning to rise again after decades of decline. The paper explores how these contradictions can coexist and discusses the policy importance of looking beyond global average trends. The paper identifies three confusions that can arise when analyzing trends in income convergence. First, a focus on unconditional convergence can overlook important policy questions, such as whether countries are likely to eradicate extreme poverty or to catch up with the rest of the world. Tests for convergence may yield only partial answers, especially in light of recent findings that show that unconditional beta convergence can coexist with a significant group of countries slipping ever further behind the rest of the world. Meanwhile extreme poverty numbers are increasing rather than decreasing. Second, average trends can both obscure and be distorted by underlying differences in country composition. In the extreme case, while fast-growing China was below global mean incomes between 2000 and 2020, it significantly boosted empirical support for global convergence. Now that China has passed this threshold, the finding will likely reverse in the coming years as more data is available. Third, different levels of availability of time periods and country coverage can distort and even bias empirical findings, especially where limitations to data availability is correlated with lower income or diverging economies
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10622
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  • 42
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    Country Case Study Fiji - Containing, Mitigating, and Responding to COVID-19 : Knowledge Generation and Exchange, Preparedness, and Response (March 2020 to June 2022) (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Other Health Study
    Keywords: Covid Vaccination ; Covid-19 Impact ; Gender-Based Violence ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Immunizations ; Inequality ; Pandemic Response Case Study ; Poverty Reduction ; Public Health Promotion ; Public Health Response To Covid ; Universal Health Coverage
    Abstract: The Fiji government responded quickly and moved decisively with stringent measures following the identification of the first COVID-19 case and took various effective measures to prevent its spread. It has been quick to implement public health emergency measures including lockdowns, curfews, physical distancing, travel restrictions, and international border closures to prevent imported cases of the virus. While the Fiji government used its endorsed Health and Emergencies Disaster Management Plan (HEADMAP) and did not view the pandemic as a new concept requiring a new approach, its application remains one that is innovative and potentially transformative, especially for Fiji and the Pacific region. A total of 65,713 cases (7,426 per 100,000 population) and 866 deaths (98 per 100,000 population) have been reported up until June 30, 2022. The Ministry of Health and Medical Services (MoHMS) in Fiji mobilized its staff to serve at designated fever clinics and isolation facilities in hospitals and communities, and it gradually increased its sentinel sites for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests, with additional capacity to undertake GeneXpert COVID-19 testing. Since the first confirmed case of COVID-19 was identified in Fiji on March 19, 2020, the government of Fiji has taken proactive and effective measures, including nonpharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) such as school and workplace closure, community quarantine, limiting size of meetings, restricting travel, stay-at-home guidelines for high-risk people, teleworking, closure of high risk venues, and personal hygiene measures; active surveillance and case detection; and appropriate case management using various strategies including fever clinics, contact tracing, supervision, and home quarantine to ensure safe delivery of clinical services. The pandemic has disproportionately impacted the most vulnerable and marginalized groups, including women, children, older people, young people, persons with disabilities, the LGBTQI+ community, single and women-headed households, and poor households, with escalating rates of gender-based violence being reported. Although there are many challenges faced in adequately containing and responding to the COVID-19 pandemic, some of the lessons learned could provide valuable insights for policy makers and researchers globally
    DOI: 10.1596/40752
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  • 43
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    Quality and Inequality in Pre-Primary and Home Environment Inputs to Early Childhood Development in Egypt (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (42 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Krafft, Caroline Quality and Inequality in Pre-Primary and Home Environment Inputs to Early Childhood Development in Egypt
    Keywords: Children and Youth ; Early Childhood Development ; Education ; Education Quality ; Home Environment ; Inequality ; Poverty Reduction ; Pre-Primary ; Pre-Primary Child Development Investment ; Primary Education Investment ; School Readiness Indicators ; Social Development ; Socioeconomic Inquality
    Abstract: By the time children in low- and middle-income countries start primary school, large socioeconomic disparities are evident in children's learning and development. Both pre-primary and home environments can play important roles in influencing school readiness and can contribute to disparities in early childhood development, but there is limited evidence on their relative roles in low- and middle-income countries. This paper examines how pre-primary quality, stimulation at home, and early childhood development vary by socioeconomic status for pre-primary students in the Arab Republic of Egypt. The results demonstrate substantial socioeconomic inequality in stimulation at home, more so than in pre-primary quality and inputs, although there is variation in the degree of inequality across different dimensions of pre-primary quality. "Double inequality" is observed, where students with less stimulating home environments experience slightly lower quality pre-primary inputs. There are particularly large pre-primary inequities in structural quality (physical environment) and less inequity in process quality (pedagogy). These results suggest that targeted investments in pre-primary education in Egypt are necessary to reduce inequality in school readiness but are likely insufficient to close the socioeconomic status gap in children's development. Investing in interventions to improve vulnerable children's home learning environments, as well as investing in quality pre-primary, is critical to address disparities in children's development
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10317
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  • 44
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    Long COVID : The Evolution of Household Welfare in Developing Countries during the Pandemic (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (63 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Brunckhorst, Ben Long COVID: The Evolution of Household Welfare in Developing Countries during the Pandemic
    Keywords: COVID and Informal Workers ; COVID-19 Impacts ; Gender ; Gender and Poverty ; Gendered COVID Impact ; Inequality ; Labor Market Impacts ; Phone Survey Data ; Poverty Reduction ; Welfare
    Abstract: This paper examines the welfare impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, using harmonized data from 343 high-frequency phone surveys conducted in 80 economies during 2020 and 2021, representing more than 2.5 billion people. The analysis focuses on the scarring effects of the initial losses of employment and income by examining their evolution over time across and within countries, as restrictions on mobility and economic activity were introduced and then gradually relaxed. The employment and welfare outcomes of some groups that were impacted to a greater degree initially-including women, informal workers, and those with less education-have been improving at a slower pace. The social protection response in lower-income economies was largely insufficient to protect households from the pandemic shock. Unmitigated welfare losses, as seen for example from the large share of households indicating income losses well into 2021, are highly correlated with food insecurity, which likely led some households to sell physical assets and deplete their savings. Without proper remediation, the uneven welfare impacts associated with COVID-19 may be amplified over the medium to long term, leading to future increases in poverty and inequality
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10300
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  • 45
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    Quantifying Vulnerability to Poverty in El Salvador (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (34 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Rude, Britta Quantifying Vulnerability to Poverty in El Salvador
    Keywords: Adaptive Safety Nets ; Development Patterns and Poverty ; Household-Level Shocks ; Inequality ; Poverty Reduction ; Risk Mitigation Strategy ; Social Development ; Social Protections and Labor ; Social Risk Management ; Vulnerability To Poverty ; Vulnerable Populations
    Abstract: El Salvador is marked by high vulnerability to risks and hazards, such as crime, natural disasters, and migration. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the vulnerability patterns of its population. This paper applies an innovative approach to estimate the population's vulnerability to poverty and analyze its underlying drivers. The findings show that ex-ante vulnerability to poverty decreased over 2016 to 2019, a parallel trend to the poverty reduction observed in the country during this period. This finding comes hand in hand with an increase in the importance of risk factors relative to a low accumulation of assets driving vulnerability. Additionally, household-level shocks play a more significant role than community-level shocks. To address vulnerabilities in the country, the government should invest in adaptive safety nets and risk mitigation strategies
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10289
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  • 46
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    Does Market Integration Increase Rural Land Inequality? : Evidence from India (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (49 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Berg, Claudia Does Market Integration Increase Rural Land Inequality? Evidence from India
    Keywords: Colonial Railroad ; Communities and Human Settlements ; Credit Market Imperfections ; Farming Technology ; Golden Quadrilateral ; Gravity Measures ; Increasing Returns ; Inequality ; International Economics and Trade ; Land Administration ; Land Inequality ; Landlessness ; Market Integration ; Poverty Reduction ; Rural Land Policies for Poverty Reduction ; Rural Roads and Transport ; Transport Infrastructure
    Abstract: Investments in transport infrastructure lower trade costs and lead to integration of villages with urban markets. Does spatial market integration increase land inequality in rural areas Theoretical analysis by Braverman and Stiglitz (1989) suggests that the interactions of lower trade costs with credit market imperfections can increase land inequality. The primary mechanism is the adoption of increasing returns technology by large landowners facing lower trade costs which makes it more profitable to expand their scale by buying land from small, credit-constrained farmers. Using high- quality household survey data (the India Human Development Survey) on land ownership in rural districts of India, this paper provides the first evidence on the effects of market integration on land ownership inequality. It develops an instrumental variables approach exploiting two sources of exogenous variation: the location of a rural district relative to the Golden Quadrilateral network (an inconsequential place design) and the length of colonial railroad in the 1880s in a district (a historical infrastructure design). This paper discusses and deals with potential objections to the exclusion restrictions. The evidence suggests that a 10 percent increase in a gravity measure of market access increases the land Gini coefficient by 2.5 percent and the share of landless households by 6.8 percent. This paper finds evidence consistent with the Braverman and Stiglitz (1989) hypothesis that the interaction of credit market imperfections with lower trade costs increases land inequality: a 10 percent increase in market access increases the adoption of increasing returns farming technology by 3.5 percent. There is a positive effect on land sales, but the instrumental variables estimates are imprecise. The robustness of the conclusions is checked by relaxing the exclusion restrictions using the Conley and others (2012) approach, and the bias-adjusted ordinary least squares estimator of Oster (2019) that does not impose any exclusion restrictions. The estimated effects of market access cannot be accounted for by the colonial land revenue system, demographic pressure on land, and differences in inheritance law between the Hindu and Muslim population in a district
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10286
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  • 47
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    Uganda Poverty Assessment Overview : Strengthening Resilience to Accelerate Poverty Reduction in Uganda (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Poverty Assessment
    Keywords: Education ; Inequality ; Limited Safety Nets ; Poverty Assessment ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis, Poverty ; Poverty Reduction, Inequality ; Rural Households ; Telecommunications Sector
    Abstract: The share of Uganda's population that lives below the poverty line has fluctuated over the last seven years, greatly influenced by shocks that have tested the resilience of the people. The COVID-19 pandemic pushed both urban and rural residents into poverty. Inequality, which reflects the extent to which different population groups benefit from Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth, and affects the transmission of growth into poverty reduction, remained largely unchanged over this period and may even have worsened in urban areas. The findings of this report show that previously identified patterns and drivers of Uganda's poverty changes persisted well into 2020 - shaped by low productivity and high vulnerability. Identified inequality of economic opportunities and unequal accumulation of the human capital could hold back structural change in employment. Accelerating poverty reduction in such a setting requires a two-pronged strategy. While at the macroeconomic level, policies addressing growth fundamentals are important for reducing poverty, from a microeconomic perspective, the report's analysis shows that two strategies will be crucial. The first strategy is to lift the productivity and incomes of poor households in both rural and urban areas. While tackling agricultural productivity and job creation are at the top of the agenda here, making mobile phone services more widely accessible and affordable is a potential opportunity. The second strategy is to strengthen people's resilience to shocks, particularly in rural areas. To have an impact, policies in both these areas will have to address the inequality in opportunities analyzed in the report. This document provides an overview of key report findings and identifies priority actions
    DOI: 10.1596/39855
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    The COVID-19 Mark on Urban Mobility : A Tale of two Cities' Journey to Recovery (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (22 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Stokenberga, Aiga The COVID-19 Mark on Urban Mobility: A Tale of two Cities' Journey to Recovery
    Keywords: Big Data ; COVID-19 Impact ; COVID-19 Pandemic ; Mobility ; Pre and Post-Pandemic Travel ; Rural Development ; Rural Roads and Transport ; Transport Policy ; Urban Transport
    Abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic significantly changed mobility patterns in the Bogota and Buenos Aires metropolitan areas, as shown by the differences between the October 2019, 2020, and 2021 indicator values derived from call detail record-based origin-destination matrices. The differences between 2019 and 2020 were more notable than between 2019 and 2021 on most mobility indicators, demonstrating a reversal of the pre-pandemic mobility habits. However, by late 2021, the return to pre-pandemic levels was still very partial in the case of public transport use (especially so in Buenos Aires), while in Bogota the pandemic appeared to have induced a permanent-and increasing-shift to nonmotorized modes. Other mobility indicators that appear to have changed more permanently in Bogota include the lower average distances traveled and the relatively higher importance of non-home-based mobility. In the Buenos Aires Metropolitan Area, the key persistent changes include the lower overall trip generation rates and specifically peak-hour travel, and the higher relative weight of travel to work and school compared to other travel purposes. These findings are partly explained by the underlying policy and regulatory context in the two cities and are relevant for designing transport policy in the post-pandemic context, including in terms of public transport route and schedule planning, cycleway network expansion, and, more broadly, the leveraging of big data as a complement to traditional mobility surveys
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10484
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  • 49
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    Reconceptualizing Global Multidimensional Poverty Measurement, with Illustration on Nigerian Data (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (50 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Decerf, Bonoit Reconceptualizing Global Multidimensional Poverty Measurement, with Illustration on Nigerian Data
    Keywords: Health and Poverty ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Inequality ; Monitary Poverty Measurement Bias ; Mortality Impact Measurement ; Multidimensional Poverty Measurement ; Poverty Diagnostics ; Poverty Reduction ; Well-Being Indicator
    Abstract: Multidimensional poverty measures can in theory make well-being comparisons that are less biased than those solely based on monetary poverty. However, global multidimensional poverty measures suffer in practice from limitations that have led to credible criticisms. This paper presents the case for multidimensional poverty measures, two criticisms against their current implementations, as well as recently proposed solutions to improve on these criticisms. The paper develops a method for implementing these solutions in practice. The resulting well-being indicator is used to compare well-being across Nigerian states in 2019. This empirical illustration suggests that these solutions may substantially affect well-being comparisons. The paper also quantifies the potential bias inherent to comparing well-being solely based on monetary poverty. The results find substantially different well-being comparisons between the proposed well-being indicator and monetary poverty even though monetary poverty was (i) high in Nigeria in 2019 and (ii) very heterogeneously distributed across Nigerian states; and (iii) is integrated as one component of the proposed well-being indicator. The paper aims to improve global multidimensional poverty measures by making them more consistent with preference theory and by incorporating the direct impact of mortality, which deprives individuals of the most important functioning
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10577
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  • 50
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    Fiscal Policy Effects on Poverty and Inequality in Cambodia (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (51 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Karamba, Wendy Fiscal Policy Effects on Poverty and Inequality in Cambodia
    Keywords: Commitment To Equity ; Fiscal and Monetary Policy ; Fiscal Incidence ; Fiscal Policy ; Inequality ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poverty Reduction ; Social Spending ; Taxation
    Abstract: This study assesses the short-term impact of fiscal policy, and its individual elements, on poverty and inequality in Cambodia as of 2019. It applies the Commitment to Equity methodology to data from the Cambodia Socio-economic Survey of 2019/20 and fiscal administrative data from various government ministries, departments, and agencies for the assessment. The study presents among the first empirical evidence on the impact of taxes and social spending on households in Cambodia. The study finds that: (i) Cambodia's 2019 fiscal system reduces inequality by 0.95 Gini index points, with the largest reduction in inequality created by in-kind transfers from spending on primary education; (ii) while Cambodia's fiscal system reduces inequality, the degree of inequality reduction is small in international comparison; and (iii) low-income households pay more in indirect taxes than they receive in cash benefits in the short term to offset the burden. As a result, the number of poor and vulnerable individuals who, in the short term, experience net cash subtractions from their incomes is greater than the number of poor and vulnerable individuals who experience net additions. Fiscal policy can deliver more net benefits to poor and vulnerable households through expanding social assistance spending. Cambodia has embarked on this expansion during the coronavirus pandemic, bringing it closer in line with comparators
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10570
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    A Spatial Perspective on Booms and Busts : Evidence from Turkiye (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (51 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Baez, Javier E A Spatial Perspective on Booms and Busts: Evidence from Turkiye
    Keywords: Business Cycles and Growth ; Business Cycles and Stabilization Policies ; Data on National Income ; Economic Development Analysis ; Economic Geography ; Economic Growth Cycles ; Inequality ; International Economics and Trade ; Macroeconomic Analyses ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Measurement of National Income ; Poverty Reduction ; Regional Economic Activity ; Spatial Inequality
    Abstract: This paper combines official subnational and remote-sensed data to uncover the relationships between business cycles in Turkiye and the corresponding changes in economic activity at lower levels of spatial aggregation. The objective is to document changes in the nature of growth within and across business cycles, with a focus on understanding how sectoral changes interact with within-country remoteness during each phase. The paper shows that: (i) the significant growth between 2010 and 2017 was bookended by recessions in which gross domestic product per capita fell more sharply the closer a province was to one of the two largest cities; (ii) the two recessions differed in terms of their sectoral impacts, with manufacturing declines inversely related to remoteness during the first recession and positively related during the second; (iii) there were large increases in the construction sector's gross value added during the post-2009 rebound-consistent with unprecedented increases in nighttime light luminosity-with growth positively related to remoteness; and (iv) changes in nighttime light luminosity are correlated with changes in physical activity: a 10 percent increase in nighttime lights is associated with a 3.5 percent increase in construction output and a 1.5 percent increase in manufacturing output. Together, the results suggest that recessions and recoveries that may appear to be similar at a macroeconomic scale may be driven by very different changes at more disaggregated spatial scales and have varied impacts on regional convergence
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10553
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  • 52
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    Preferences for Wage Discrimination against Women (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (28 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Seitz, William Preferences for Wage Discrimination against Women
    Keywords: Age Bias ; Discrimination ; Equal Pay ; Equity and Development ; Gender ; Gender and Law ; Gender Equality ; Gender Wage Gap ; Inequality ; Poverty Reduction ; Social Protections and Labor ; Systematic Gender Bias ; Wages, Compensation and Benefits
    Abstract: This study demonstrates systematic bias against women in public perceptions of the fairness of wages. In nationally representative survey experiments across more than 70,000 individual vignettes posed to 4,500 respondents in three Central Asian countries, respondents were 13 percent more likely to say wages were "too high" when the randomly assigned person described in the vignette (subject) was a woman, and 34 percent more likely to say they were "too low" when the subject was a man. The pattern of bias favoring higher wages for men is statistically significant at conventional levels in all three countries, among both male and female respondents, and in each of the eight occupations studied. The results also demonstrate the presence of significant bias in favor or older workers, specifically for white-collar occupations, and the absence of this relationship for the blue-collar occupations included in the experiment. The findings reinforce the importance of bias as a contributing factor to the gender pay gap, and the value of equal pay regulations to prevent gender discrimination in wage setting
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10548
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  • 53
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    Assessing the Efficiency and Fairness of the Fit for 55 Package toward Net Zero Emissions under Different Revenue Recycling Schemes for Italy (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (20 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Orecchia, Carlo Assessing the Efficiency and Fairness of the Fit for 55 Package toward Net Zero Emissions under Different Revenue Recycling Schemes for Italy
    Keywords: Achieving Environmental Sustainability Goals ; Carbon Policy and Trading ; Carbon Pricing Impact ; Climate Change Mitigation and Green House Gases ; Environment ; European Green Deal ; Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction ; Inequality ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poverty Reduction ; Revenue Recycling ; Tax System Reform ; Taxation and Subsidies
    Abstract: One of Italy's key objectives is to reform and modernize the tax system to increase tax efficiency and improve environmental sustainability and regional economic outcomes, in line with the European Union strategy. Within the framework of the European Green Deal, Italy is committed to contributing to the goal of becoming the first climate neutral region by 2050 (the "Fit for 55" package). As an intermediate step toward the 2050 target, the European Union must reduce greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55 percent by 2030 compared to 1990 levels. Carbon pricing is at the core of the proposal, but its full implementation is also expected to have regressive effects, harming poorer households, and adverse economic impacts, reducing firms' competitiveness. This paper evaluates the effects of the carbon pricing proposal of the "Fit for 55" package on welfare, sectoral production, and income distribution. To tackle the adverse social and economic effects, it compares different revenue recycling schemes shifting the tax burden from major direct and indirect taxes to carbon emissions. It finds that well-targeted revenue recycling policies might significantly reduce the negative effects. The analysis adopts the Italian Regional and Environmental Computable General Equilibrium of the Department of Finance model, which is a new (recursive) dynamic computable general equilibrium model developed by the Italian Ministry of the Economy with technical assistance from the World Bank. It has a detailed energy specification that allows for capital/labor/energy substitution in production, intra-fuel energy substitution across all demand agents, a multi-output and multi-input production structure, an extended energy system with 11 different types of technologies, multiple households to address distributional impacts, and detailed information on the Italian tax system
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10592
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  • 54
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    Droughts and Deficits : The Global Impact of Droughts on Economic Growth (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (35 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Zaveri, Esha D Droughts and Deficits: The Global Impact of Droughts on Economic Growth
    Keywords: Agricultural Growth and Rural Development ; Climate Change Economics ; Climate Resilience ; Drought ; GDP Growth and Drought ; Green Water ; Land Use ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poverty Reduction ; Rainfall ; Rainfall Shocks ; Rural Development ; Soil Moisture
    Abstract: As climate change intensifies, dry rainfall shocks and droughts are a growing concern. At the same time, scientific evidence suggests that the world has surpassed the safe planetary boundary for green water, which is water stored in biomass and soil that is crucial for maintaining climate resilience. Yet, evidence at the global scale of these combined forces on economic growth is poorly understood. This paper attempts to fill this gap by using data on annual subnational gross domestic product for 82 countries from 1990-2014. Using rainfall shocks as plausibly exogenous variations in a spatially specific panel at the grid level, the analysis finds that the global effects of droughts on economic activity are substantial. Moderate to extreme droughts reduce gross domestic product per capita growth between 0.39 and 0.85 percentage point, on average, depending on the level of development and baseline climatic conditions, with low- and middle-income countries in arid areas sustaining the highest relative losses. In high-income countries, moderate droughts have no impact, and only extreme droughts have adverse effects, reducing growth by about 0.3 percentage point, a little less than half the impact felt in the low- and middle-income country sample for the same intensity of drought. Crucially, the impact of a dry shock of a given magnitude also depends on antecedent green water availability. The results show that increases in soil moisture in previous years can neutralize the harmful impacts from a dry shock, with suggestive evidence that local and upstream forest cover are key channels through which these impacts manifest. These findings have important implications for measuring the economic impact of droughts and can inform adaptation investments
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10453
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  • 55
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    Malawi Country Economic Memorandum : A Narrow Path to Prosperity (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Country Economic Memorandum
    Keywords: Agricultural Growth and Rural Development ; Agriculture ; Economic Growth ; GDP ; High Poverty Rate ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector ; Rural Development ; Rural Economy ; Slow Growth
    Abstract: This Country Economic Memorandum (CEM) argues for a significant shift in policy to enable a virtuous cycle of sustained and inclusive economic growth, outlined infive building blocks. Chapter 1 identifies policy priorities to restore the macroeconomic fundamentals for growth through fiscal reform, debt sustainability, external rebalancing, and monetary stability. The following three chapters address three core structural constraints to growth and propose key reforms to accelerate agricultural commercialization and improve rural labor markets (Chapter 2), enable the private sector to drive productivity growth (Chapter 3), and catalyze exports and foreign investment (Chapter 4). Acknowledging that implementing key growth-enhancing policies--be they macroeconomic or structural--are the result of complex political economy and governance arrangements, Chapter 5 focuses on how past Malawian successes can inform future sectoral policies, reforms, and strategies to achieve the goals outlined in the Malawi 2063
    DOI: 10.1596/40854
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  • 56
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    The Distributional Impact of Inflation in South Asia : An Empirical Approach (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (36 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Dovonou, Vanessa Olakemi The Distributional Impact of Inflation in South Asia: An Empirical Approach
    Keywords: Distributional Effect ; Distributional Impact ; Food Inflation ; Food Inflation and Inequality ; Inequality ; Inflation ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poverty Impact Evaluation ; Poverty Reduction
    Abstract: This paper provides an empirical estimation of the distributional impact of inflation on households in South Asia. Two main channels are explored-the consumption basket channel and the income channel-for households in different income deciles in selected countries in South Asia. Using recent household expenditure surveys, the paper constructs detailed consumption expenditure shares and the effective "cost-of-living" inflation for households of different income levels. The analysis finds that due to a substantially larger share of food expenditure, households in lower income deciles experience higher effective inflation when food prices are high, despite a diversification in consumption expenditure over time. The analysis also suggests heterogeneous effects of inflation through the household income channel
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10527
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  • 57
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    Creating Markets in Eswatini : Strengthening the Private Sector to Grow Export Markets and Create Jobs - Country Private Sector Diagnostic (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Private Sector Development, Privatization, and Industrial Policy
    Keywords: Beef ; Business Environment ; Forestry ; Private Investment ; Private Sector ; Private Sector Development ; Private Sector Economics ; Rural Development ; Small and Medium Size Enterprises ; Sugar ; Trade Facilitation
    Abstract: Eswatini is facing multiple challenges. It was already experiencing weak economic growth before the COVID-19 pandemic, a reflection of longstanding, deeply rooted issues such as fiscal unsustainability, declining private investment, weakening productivity and competitiveness, and falling export diversification and complexity, compounded by the impact of climate shocks. It shifted from a private investment-led higher-growth model to a government spending-led lower-growth model after the end of apartheid in South Africa. With weak investment in productive sectors, Eswatini's job market failed to keep pace with an expanding, younger labor force, leading to a large informal sector. Eswatini's public sector-driven growth model is unsustainable under current fiscally constrained conditions, and there is a need to reduce and reprioritize public spending. An assessment of existing sectoral data and consultations with Eswatini's private sector and policy makers suggest that four sectors can help drive the export-led private sector growth model. To return to an export-led growth model, Eswatini needs to increase export competitiveness by advancing regulatory reforms and improvements in trade logistics that include regional collaboration to address trade facilitation constraints. Finally, given the country's vulnerability to climate risks, policies to foster economic resilience amid extreme weather events (mainly droughts that affect agriculture) and improve disaster preparedness need to be pursued. The private sector must adapt to this challenge and work with the government to improve climate resilience
    DOI: 10.1596/38335
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  • 58
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    Cambodia Poverty Assessment : Toward a More Inclusive and Resilient Cambodia (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Poverty Assessment
    Keywords: COVID-19 ; Fiscal Policy ; Housing ; Inequality ; Labor Market ; Living Standards ; Poverty and Policy ; Poverty Assessment ; Poverty Reduction
    Abstract: This poverty assessment evaluates Cambodia's poverty reduction progress between 2009 and 2019 and contributing factors. Based on the authors understanding of contributing factors, the assessment asks what the impact of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has been, and what will be needed to support inclusive recovery. The Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC) recently updated the national poverty lines for Cambodia. Prompted by Cambodia's transition to lower middle-income status in 2015, the RGC revisited the poverty measurement methodology in 2017; the review confirmed that the way Cambodians live and spend today has changed considerably as the country became richer, and that the national poverty lines needed revising to better reflect economic realities. This assessment uses the new poverty lines to evaluate Cambodia between 2009 and 2019, coupled with other data sources. This poverty assessment covers 5 chapters. Chapter 1 examines the progress Cambodia made in reducing poverty and boosting shared prosperity between 2009 and 2019. Chapter 2 examines the evolution of nonmonetary poverty between 2009 and 2019. Chapter 3 examines the profile of poverty and inequality in 2019/20. Chapter 4 examines the 2019 fiscal system and its effects on poverty and inequality in 2019/20. Chapter 5 examines COVID-19 socio-economic effects on Cambodian Households in 2020
    DOI: 10.1596/38344
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  • 59
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    Understanding the Distributional Impacts of Increases in Fuel Prices on Poverty and Inequality in Paraguay (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (27 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Gustavo, Canavire Bacarreza Understanding the Distributional Impacts of Increases in Fuel Prices on Poverty and Inequality in Paraguay
    Keywords: Commodities ; Crude Oil Import Dependence ; Economic Insecurity ; Energy ; Energy and Poverty Alleviation ; Energy Dependence ; Fuel Prices ; Fuels ; Inequality ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Oil and Gas ; Oil Price Volatility ; Poverty
    Abstract: The recent global increases in fuel prices threaten the gains in poverty reduction that countries like Paraguay have achieved over the past few decades. Therefore, policy makers must understand the potential distributional impacts of increases in fuel prices to evaluate the implementation of alternative measures that could mitigate these impacts. This paper analyzes the potential effects of fuel prices on poverty and inequality in Paraguay. Using microsimulation methods and based on the Commitment to Equity framework, it estimates the impact of higher fuel prices on welfare, poverty, and inequality based on three scenarios: (a) increases in gasoline prices, (b) increases in diesel prices, and (c) simultaneous increases in gasoline and diesel prices. The results obtained suggest that the total impact of increasing fuel prices tends to be more regressive in Paraguay. At the same time, the results of the simulations indicate small effects on income inequality
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10268
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  • 60
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    Thailand Economic Monitor : Fiscal Policy for a Resilient and Equitable Future (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Economic Updates and Modeling
    Keywords: Global Shocks ; Inequitable Access ; Inflation ; Rural Development ; Uneven Distribution
    Abstract: The economy has shown resilience to recent global shocks thus far, with output surpassing its pre-pandemic level in 2022 Q3, earlier than expected but trailing behind peers. Thailand's economic recovery, however, lagged that of its ASEAN peers, most of which returned to pre-pandemic levels by late 2021. In addition, exports of goods remained a drag on growth in contrast to many peers who benefitted from stronger good export growth in the first half of this year. Most recently, Thailand experienced a sharp slowdown in goods exports growth, also observed it its ASEAN peers and consistent with the contraction in global manufacturing Purchasing Manager Index (PMI). Despite higher revenue from tourism, the current account deficit remained wide in 2022 Q3. Price pressures have remained elevated and broadened to core inflation. Fiscal measures aimed at mitigating the cost-of-living shock have supported economic activity but contributed to the slowdown in fiscal consolidation. The financial system remains stable overall, although risks associated with increased levels of household and corporate debt have not been resolved. Labor market conditions have improved, but the phasing out of Coronavirus (COVID-19) relief measures and the rising cost of living may slow down poverty reduction. Thailand's relatively low tax revenue collection contributes to underinvestment in pro-poor spending. Short-term reforms to VAT and social assistance could result in a net increase of tax revenues and significant reductions in poverty and inequality. Thailand will face a difficult global environment in 2023
    DOI: 10.1596/38410
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  • 61
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    Talk or Text? : Evaluating Response Rates by Remote Survey Method during COVID-19 (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (50 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Amaral, Sofia Talk or Text? Evaluating Response Rates by Remote Survey Method during COVID-19
    Keywords: Alternative Survey Methods ; Gender ; Gender and Social Policy ; Gender Survey Response Rate ; Household Survey Response Rate ; ICT Data and Statistics ; ICT Policy and Strategies ; Information and Communication Technologies ; Phone Surveys ; Post-Covid Household Survey ; Rural Communications ; Rural Development ; Survey Experiments ; Survey Response Rate ; Whatsapp Surveys
    Abstract: Researchers and policy makers face significant challenges in selecting a method to conduct remote surveys, especially when collecting sensitive information or during turbulent life stages of hard-to-reach groups. In the context of the COVID-19 lockdown, this study randomly selected about 600 adults in El Salvador to survey using two different tools: telephone interviews or a self-completion survey via WhatsApp. The findings show that phone-based surveys increase the rate of survey completion by 42 percentage points. Even larger effects are documented for women and older adults. Although the direct costs of phone-based surveys are substantially higher-doubling implementation cost-the estimates imply that when adjusted for the probability of completion, the costs of conducting phone-based surveys can be 25 percent lower
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-9999
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  • 62
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    Balancing Work and Childcare : Evidence from COVID-19 School Closures and Reopenings in Kenya (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (35 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Biscaye, Pierre E Balancing Work and Childcare: Evidence from COVID-19 School Closures and Reopenings in Kenya
    Keywords: Child Agricultural Labor ; Childcare ; Education ; Educational Sciences ; Households With Child ; Labor Markets ; Poverty and Equity ; Rural Development ; Rural Labor Markets ; School Closure ; Social Protections and Labor
    Abstract: This paper identifies the impact of childcare responsibilities on adult labor supply in the context of COVID-19-related school closures in Kenya. It compares changes in parents' labor participation after schools partly reopened in October 2020 for households with children in a grade eligible to return against households with children in adjacent grades. Using nationally-representative panel data from World Bank phone surveys in 2020-21, the findings show that the partial reopening increases affected adults' weekly labor hours by 22 percent, with increases concentrated in household agriculture. The results suggest that school closures account for over 30 percent of the fall in average work hours in the first few months after COVID-19 cases were detected. The effects are driven by changes in household childcare burdens and child agricultural labor when a student returns to school. The impacts are not significantly different by sex of the adult. Although both women and men increased hours spent on childcare during the pandemic, women benefited more than men from reductions in childcare needs, but took on more of the childcare burden when the returning student was a net childcare provider. The results highlight the importance of siblings in household childcare and suggest that policies that increase childcare availability and affordability could increase adult labor supply in Kenya
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-9958
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  • 63
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    Assessing the Impact of the 2017 PPPs on the International Poverty Line and Global Poverty (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (77 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Jolliffe, Dean Mitchell Assessing the Impact of the 2017 PPPs on the International Poverty Line and Global Poverty
    Keywords: Geographic Distribution Of Poverty ; Global Poverty ; Inequality ; Inflation ; International Trade and Trade Rules ; National Poverty Rate ; Poverty and Equity ; Poverty Impact Evaluation ; Poverty Lines ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Reduction ; Public-Private Partnership
    Abstract: Purchasing power parities (PPPs) are used to estimate the international poverty line (IPL) in a common currency and account for relative price differences across countries when measuring global poverty. This paper assesses the impact of the 2017 PPPs on the nominal value of the IPL and global poverty. The analysis indicates that updating the USD 1.90 IPL in 2011 PPP dollars to 2017 PPP dollars results in an IPL of approximately USD 2.15-a finding that is robust to various methods and assumptions. Based on an IPL of USD 2.15, the global extreme poverty rate in 2017 falls from 9.3 to 9.1 percent, reducing the count of people who are poor by 16 million. This is a modest change compared with previous updates of PPP data. The paper also assesses the methodological stability between the 2011 and 2017 PPPs, scrutinizes large changes at the country level, and analyzes higher poverty lines with the 2017 PPPs
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-9941
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  • 64
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    Qualitative Comparative Analysis : Exploring Causal Links for Scaling Up Investments in Renewable Energy (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Other papers
    Keywords: Electricity ; Energy ; Energy and Economic Development ; Energy and Environment ; Energy Policies and Economics ; Energy Resources Development ; Renewable Energy ; Rural Development
    Abstract: This paper uses Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) to validate the theory of change developed for an evaluation of renewable energy strategies, identifying pathways for scaling up RE in a variety of different contexts. QCA was used to translate qualitative judgements into quantitative information, triangulating findings from other methods and helping to draw conclusions on how best to meet global energy goals established by the international community. The analysis also helped identify three specific pathways through which precondition barriers could be addressed to overcome challenges facing the successful achievement of the clean energy transition
    DOI: 10.1596/37092
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    Childcare, COVID-19 and Female Firm Exit : Impact of COVID-19 School Closure Policies on Global Gender Gaps in Business Outcomes (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (77 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Goldstein, Markus Childcare, COVID-19 and Female Firm Exit: Impact of COVID-19 School Closure Policies on Global Gender Gaps in Business Outcomes
    Keywords: Businss Outcome Gender Gaps ; COVID-19 Job Loss ; COVID-19 School Closures ; Economic Growth ; Employment Inequity ; Entrepreneurship ; Female Entrepreneurship ; Firm Performance ; Gender ; Gender and Health ; Gender Monitoring and Evaluation ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Inequality ; Labor Markets ; Mother's Employment ; Poverty Reduction ; Unpaid Domestic and Care Work ; Wage Gap
    Abstract: This paper estimates the impact of a large negative childcare shock on gender gaps in entrepreneurship using the shock created by national COVID-19 school closure policies. The paper leverages a unique data set of monthly enterprise data collected from a repeated cross-section of business owners across 50 countries via Facebook throughout 2020 and in 2021. The paper shows that, globally, female-led firms were, on average, 4 percentage points more likely to close their business and experienced larger revenue declines than male-led firms during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 (male firms closed at a rate of 17 percent in 2020, and 12 percent in 2021). The gender gap in firm closures persisted into 2021. The closing of schools, a key part of the care infrastructure, led to higher business closures, and women with children were more likely to close their business in response to a school closure policy than men with children. Female entrepreneurs were found to take on a greater share of the increase in the domestic and care work burden than male entrepreneurs. Finally, the paper finds that women entrepreneurs in societies with more conservative norms with respect to gender equality were significantly more likely to close their business and increase the time spent on domestic and care responsibilities in response to a school closure policy, relative to women in more liberal societies. The paper provides global evidence of a motherhood penalty and childcare constraint to help explain gender inequalities in an entrepreneurship context
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10012
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    Paths Toward Green Mobility : Perspectives on Women and Rail Transport in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Serbia (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Transport Papers
    Keywords: Gender ; Inequality ; Labor Markets ; Poverty Reduction ; Social Protections and Labor
    Abstract: This report explores two aspects of the rail transport sector - mobility, and employment--in the countries of Serbia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina from a gender perspective. It examines issues of rail transport for women both as passengers, and as sector employees. It highlights the urgency of transport decarbonization for the Western Balkan countries (WB6) in the context of the European Union's Green Deal,2 which aims to achieve net zero greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 2050. This report shows that Covid-19 has decimated rail transport use at a time when global and WB6 regional efforts must dramatically increase their movement toward decarbonization. The study confirms that the pandemic has drawn people away from public transport including rail, and toward more carbon-intensive individual modes of transportation. It also makes a rarely made connection between getting more women into the transport sector and improved mobility for women. Rail services remain male-dominated across the world. The report finds clear parallels between women's employment and mobility. Finally, while this study focuses on women and rail transport, it has the benefit of making rail more attractive for other cohorts as well, including those who primarily use private vehicles (mainly men)
    DOI: 10.1596/37324
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    Managing Environmental and Social Risks in Resilient Housing Projects (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Other Urban Study
    Keywords: Health and Sanitation ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Inequality ; Poverty Reduction ; Risk Management ; Social Development ; Urban Housing and Land Settlements
    Abstract: Resilient Housing (RH) initiatives are a crucial means of improving access to safe and sanitary housing in urban areas of high vulnerability. These projects make residents safer, healthier, and more secure, and increase the economic inclusion of the world's poorest populations. They upgrade homes, improve neighborhoods, and change lives. Like all investment projects, RH initiatives carry with them some risks and may impact the lives of community members in the project area. The note briefly introduces RH initiatives, describes their unique approach to project design, and touches on the possible risks occasioned by RH projects. It then explores the many ways in which RH initiatives closely align with the objectives and technical requirements embedded in the World Bank's Environmental and Social Framework (ESF), which went into effect on October 1, 2018. The ESF lays out a comprehensive approach to identifying and managing environmental and social risks and minimizing potential impacts. The goals and requirements of RH initiatives and the ESF complement one another, and this note will describe how this mutually supportive relationship creates desirable outcomes that achieve the objectives of both, despite occasional trade-offs. Using recent operational experience as a guide to best practices, the note's final section provides recommendations for Task Team Leaders responsible for managing RH projects on how to apply the ESF to their projects to minimize risk and maximize project impact
    DOI: 10.1596/37255
    URL: Deutschlandweit zugänglich
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    Inequality and Security in the Aftermath of Internal Population Displacement Shocks : Evidence from Nigeria (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (53 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Ludolph, Lars Inequality and Security in the Aftermath of Internal Population Displacement Shocks: Evidence from Nigeria
    Keywords: Conflict and Development ; Displacement Shocks ; Economic Insecurity ; Economic Relief Measures ; Ethnic Violence ; Forced Displacement Relief ; Host Community Impact ; Human Rigts ; Inequality ; Internal Displacement ; Involuntary Resettlement Law ; Law and Development ; Local Conflict ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Security ; Temporary Displacement ; Violent Crime ; Voluntary and Involuntary Resettlement
    Abstract: This paper studies the security implications of internal displacement shocks for host communities. It focuses on changes in wealth within host communities induced by the inflow of internally displaced persons (IDPs) as a potential mechanism that triggers local conflicts. The sudden insurgency of the jihadist terrorist organization Boko Haram, which led to the internal displacement of over 2.5 million persons in northeastern Nigeria, is used as a quasi-natural experiment. Applying both a two-way fixed effects analysis and an instrumental variable strategy based on historical ethnic ties between the areas of displacement and receiving areas, the results show that the presence of IDPs is associated with a decrease in aggregate wealth and an increase in inequality within host communities, between 2010 and 2019. These effects are accompanied by an increased risk of conflict onset in the short and long run. The inequality-conflict link is likely to be caused by grievances among low-wealth segments of the host community towards new arrivals rather than by changes in social cohesion within host communities, which increased in response to the inflow of IDPs. The analysis further indicates that an improvement in IDPs' living conditions is accompanied by a decrease in violence and improved relations between hosts and IDPs. Taken together, findings from this study call for a two-pronged immediate relief and recovery approach that alleviates adverse economic effects on vulnerable segments of host communities and increases IDPs' welfare in displacement settings
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10053
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  • 69
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    Kosovo : Systematic Country Diagnostic Update (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Systematic Country Diagnostics
    Keywords: Energy ; Energy Demand ; Fiscal and Monetary Policy ; Inequality ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poverty Diagnostics ; Poverty Reduction
    Abstract: This Systematic Country Diagnostic (SCD) examines the current constraints and policy priorities for Kosovo to achieve the Twin Goals of eradicating poverty and accelerating shared prosperity. This report follows on the first SCD, completed in 2017, which highlighted fiscal policy, competitiveness, inclusion, and environmental sustainability as priorities for sustainable poverty reduction and shared prosperity. Today, many challenges identified in the 2017 SCD continue to hamper Kosovo's progress and several structural weaknesses could worsen due to the pandemic, climate change, and the energy transition. In this sense, this SCD is conducted as an 'update,' as it largely maintains the conceptual framework in the previous SCD, describes how the structural conditions identified in it have evolved, and proposes a revised set of development priorities for the next five years. Today, many challenges identified in the 2017 SCD continue to hamper Kosovo's progress and several structural weaknesses could worsen due to the pandemic, climate change, and the energy transition. In this sense, this SCD is conducted as an 'update,' as it largely maintains the conceptual framework in the previous SCD, describes how the structural conditions identified in it have evolved, and proposes a revised set of development priorities for the next five years
    DOI: 10.1596/37486
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  • 70
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    Discrimination toward Migrants during Crises (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (31 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Chatruc, Marisol Rodriguez Discrimination toward Migrants during Crises
    Keywords: Altruism ; Attitudes ; Communities and Human Settlements ; Discrimination ; Facebook Survey Respondents ; Human Migrations and Resettlements ; Inequality ; Involuntary Resettlement Law ; Law and Development ; Mental Plasticity ; Migration ; Poverty Reduction ; Respondent Priming ; Social Analysis ; Voluntary and Involuntary Resettlement ; Young Adult Discrimination of Migrants
    Abstract: How do crises shape native attitudes towards migrants A common threat could pro-duce an empathy channel among natives, but the perception of competition for scarce economic resources could just as easily spark prejudice through a resentment channel. 3,400 Colombian citizens were surveyed and randomly primed to consider the economic consequences of COVID-19 before eliciting their attitudes towards Venezuelan migrants. The findings suggest that native attitudes towards migrants are substantially more suggestive of the resentment channel in the treatment group. However, respondents in the so-called impressionable years-ages 18 to 25-showed more altruism towards migrants after priming. Interestingly, both effects disappear in response to positive news
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10091
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  • 71
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    Natural Disasters and Economic Dynamics : Evidence from the Kerala Floods (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (51 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Beyer, Robert C. M Natural Disasters and Economic Dynamics: Evidence from the Kerala Floods
    Keywords: Aggregate Activity ; Economic Dynamics ; Economic Impact of Flood ; Environment ; Environmental Disaster Wage Impact ; Environmental Disasters and Degradation ; Floods ; Household Behavior ; Natural Disaster Impact ; Natural Disasters ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Reduction ; Rural Development ; Rural Labor Market ; Spatial Analysis
    Abstract: Exceptionally high rainfall in the Indian state of Kerala caused major flooding in 2018. This paper estimates the short-run causal impact of the disaster on the economy, using a difference-in-difference approach. Monthly nighttime light intensity, a proxy for aggregate economic activity, suggests that activity declined for three months during the disaster but boomed subsequently. Automated teller machine transactions, a proxy for consumer demand, declined and credit disbursal increased, with households borrowing more for housing and less for consumption. In line with other results, both household income and expenditure declined during the floods. Despite a strong wage recovery after the floods, spending remained lower relative to the unaffected districts. The paper argues that increased labor demand due to reconstruction efforts increased wages after the floods and provides corroborating evidence: (i) rural labor markets tightened, (ii) poorer households benefited more, and (iii) wages increased most where government relief was strongest. The findings confirm the presence of interesting economic dynamics during and right after natural disasters that remain in the shadow when analyzed with annual data
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10084
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  • 72
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    Introductory Remarks by World Bank Group President David Malpass at the State of the Global Economy Event Organized by Brookings Institution (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Speeches of World Bank Presidents
    Keywords: Conflict and Development ; Energy ; Food Security ; Inequality ; Inflation ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Municipal Bond Markets ; Poverty Reduction ; Urban Development
    Abstract: These opening remarks were made by World Bank Group President David Malpass at the State of the Global Economy Event Organized by Brookings Institution on July 13, 2022. Mr. Malpass said the world is facing multiple crises, including the sharpest slowdown in GDP growth in 80 years, the risk of a frozen crisis in Ukraine due to Russia's invasion, and a massive worsening in global inequality as advanced economies absorb the limited supplies of global capital and energy. Global growth is not expected to rebound in 2023, given energy supply constraints; the long overdue normalization of interest rates and bond yields in the advanced economies; and the misallocation of investments that has pushed much of the world's savings into bonds, mostly bonds issued by governments and overcapitalized borrowers. The global economy is also facing significant downside risks. These include intensifying geopolitical tensions, the fragility in many countries, the potential for an extended period of stagflation, the widespread financial stress that's caused by the higher borrowing costs, and food insecurity
    DOI: 10.1596/37807
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  • 73
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    Remarks by World Bank Group President David Malpass on World Environment Day 2022 - Mobilizing Communities for Sustainability : The Role of the Indian State (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Speeches of World Bank Presidents
    Keywords: Adaptation to Climate Change ; Climate Change ; Climate Change Impacts ; Environment ; Natural Resources Management ; Rural Development
    Abstract: These were the remarks delivered by World Bank Group President David Malpass on World Environment Day 2022 about Mobilizing Communities for Sustainability : The Role of the Indian State on June 5, 2022. He said that on the occasion of the world's environment day and in honor of Prime Minister Modi's focus on Lifestyle for the Environment (LiFE) and his call for papers, he was guided to the ancient texts of India and enlightened by their great respect for the natural world and the environment. He focused on the question of what the state can do to mobilize communities at scale for sustainable economic growth and development. He mentioned that localizing decisions to the community level has been an important part of India's development philosophy. He highlighted on getting prices right remains a vital prerequisite for changing behaviors of communities and strengthening the economy. He said that getting institutions right is also a vital prerequisite. He mentioned that alongside community motivators, mobilizing communities around development and climate-related issues will require more effective local governments and local administration. He said that to help support change, India has an impressive system of cash and non cash transfers that forms the foundation of a strong social protection system using a unique ID mechanism. He also added that it is vitally important, the state must get pricing policies and institutions right in order to credibly invite communities to participate in development programs as part of a mass movement. He said that they look forward to supporting this with a whole of World Bank approach combining the full resources and energy of the IBRD, IDA, IFC and MIGA. He highlighted that call for papers offers the opportunity to use scholarly work to understand better how policies and institutions matter in incentivizing and leveraging communities around development issues. He concluded by saying that let us not lose this learning opportunity being offered here that day by Prime Minister Modi, who said recently that once people are determined to do something together, they do wonderful things
    DOI: 10.1596/37770
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  • 74
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    Healthy and Sustainable Diets in Bangladesh (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (31 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Divya, Mehra Healthy and Sustainable Diets in Bangladesh
    Keywords: Climate Change and Health ; Dietary Recommendation ; Diets ; Eat Lancet Diet ; Eating Patterns ; Food and Nutrition Policy ; Food Demand ; Food Production ; Greenhouse Gas Emissions (GHG) ; Healthy Diet ; Nutrition ; Planetary Health Diet ; Public Health Promotion ; Rural Development ; Health, Nutrition and Population
    Abstract: An ideal food system is envisioned to provide healthy diets for people and be sustainable for the environment. Such a food system is required to deliver on these goals even as diets are increasingly and disproportionately comprised of high-fat and/or high-sugar foods vis-a-vis nutritious diets. The ideal "planetary health diet," as defined in the EAT Lancet report for several countries, presents trade-offs when contextualized at the local level. Using Bangladesh as the case study, this paper examined the change in diets (between 2000 and 2016) and their greenhouse gas emissions over time and compared the nutritional value and environmental impact to two modeled diets: national food-based dietary guidelines and the planetary health diet/EAT Lancet diet. The analysis finds that despite a change of the diet toward the recommended diet, significant gaps remain from a nutritional perspective. Moreover, meeting the dietary guidelines would increase greenhouse gas emissions by at least 10 percent. Compared to the food-based dietary guidelines, the EAT Lancet diet requires dietary patterns to change even more significantly and would increase greenhouse gas emissions by 23 percent. The policy implications and options from the production and demand sides are complex and require assessing multiple trade-offs
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10160
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  • 75
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    From the Last Mile to the Next Mile : 2022 Vietnam Poverty and Equity Assessment (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Poverty Assessment
    Keywords: Climate Change ; Development Patterns and Poverty ; Equity ; Inequality ; Living Standards ; Market Economy ; Poverty ; Poverty Assessment ; Poverty Reduction
    Abstract: Vietnam is a country on the move and in transition. Indicators are pointing in the right direction, with many positive economic and social developments. The amount of progress that Vietnam has achieved in less than half a century since emerging from a war has been nearly without parallel. At the same time, Vietnam is a lower-middle-income country facing a challenging and uncharted road ahead to reaching upper-middle and high-income country levels in a shifting global economic and climatic landscape. In less than half a century since the end of the Vietnam War and thirty-five years since the Doi Moi reforms, Vietnam has become a vibrant economy and a sought-after market to the outside world. At the same time, despite remarkable progress, poverty remains a key concern among the population. Concerns over poverty amid high economic growth are not inconsistent; together they illustrate an absolute and inclusive rise in living standards, but also a population that seeks economic security and aspires for more. This Vietnam poverty and equity assessment is organized into two parts motivated by addressing both Last Mile and Next Mile issues: Part I reviews poverty and inequality trends over the last decade, 2010-2020; and Part II assesses opportunities for and challenges to Vietnam's path to achieving its Next Mile aspirations and creating greater prosperity for households and workers
    DOI: 10.1596/37952
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  • 76
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    ReadHome - Embedding Track and Trace in Book Supply Chains : Final Country Report - Cameroon (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Education Sector Review
    Keywords: Education ; Educational Institutions and Facilities ; Primary Education ; Rural Development ; Rural Education
    Abstract: The ReadHome Track and Trace to Strengthen Book Supply Chains project involved the creation of a best practices guide to implementing track and trace solutions for Teaching and Learning Materials (TLM). Support was also provided to five target countries to adapt these best practices to the country context to enable the development of robust, locally-owned supply chain monitoring systems to ensure delivery of TLM to the schools and families that need them most
    DOI: 10.1596/37908
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  • 77
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    April 2022 Update to the Poverty and Inequality Platform (PIP) : What's New (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Other papers
    Keywords: Development Patterns and Poverty ; Equity and Development ; Inequality ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction
    Abstract: The April 2022 update to the newly launched Poverty and Inequality Platform (PIP) involves several changes to the data underlying the global poverty estimates. Some welfare aggregates have been changed for improved harmonization, and the CPI, national accounts, and population input data have been updated. This document explains these changes in detail and the reasoning behind them. Moreover, a large number of new country-years have been added, bringing the total number of surveys to more than 2,000. These include new harmonized surveys for countries in West Africa, new imputed poverty estimates for Nigeria, and recent 2020 household survey data for several countries. Global poverty estimates are now reported up to 2018 and earlier years have been revised
    DOI: 10.1596/37479
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  • 78
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    Rapid Consumption Method and Poverty and Inequality Estimation in Somalia Revisited (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Other papers
    Keywords: Development Patterns and Poverty ; Equity and Development ; Inequality ; Poverty Assessment ; Poverty Reduction
    Abstract: This paper presents updated poverty and inequality estimates from the Somalia High Frequency Survey. This survey used the Rapid Consumption Method to collect consumption data quickly in an environment of high insecurity. Its poverty estimation, therefore, requires imputation of skipped consumption modules. Previous poverty estimates did not properly impute consumption, resulting in the imputation of negative total consumption values for some households. This paper uses the Two-Part Multiple Imputation method to address this issue. The assessment of module-level prediction performance demonstrates that the Two-Part Multiple Imputation handles this issue effectively. In addition, this paper adopts the newly updated 2011 purchasing power parities to convert the High Frequency Survey consumption data for global poverty measurement purposes. Lastly, this paper provides new inequality measures to address issues with the previous exercise. The paper finds that new poverty rates are slightly lower than those using the previous method while inequality is higher with the new method
    DOI: 10.1596/37583
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  • 79
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    Mongolia 2020 Poverty Report : A Decade of Progress and Stagnation in Poverty Reduction (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Poverty Assessment
    Keywords: COVID-19 ; Inequality ; Poverty Assessment ; Poverty Diagnostics ; Poverty Reduction ; Social Development
    Abstract: Mongolia made notable strides in reducing poverty from 2010 to 2014, but the pace of poverty reduction slowed significantly after the 2016 economic recession. The trend of declining inequality and inclusive growth seen in the first half of the decade changed course in the latter half. Greater urbanization and narrowing geographical disparities in poverty have meant that the poor have become increasingly concentrated in urban centers, especially Ulaanbaatar. Economic volatility and uncertainty together with restrictions on face-to-face services may have led to an increase in precautionary saving among households, particularly during the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. An additional issue related to the measurement of consumption in 2020 specifically is the survey-to-survey imputation approach that was used to estimate poverty and the consumption distribution due to changes in the household socio-economic survey (HSES) questionnaire. Finally, despite significant increases, social transfers have had only modest success in reducing poverty due to targeting inefficiencies. The 2020 HSES shows that impacts to employment in 2020 were not significant until the final quarter, with workers in urban areas and in the service sector more likely to be affected. While subsequent surveys will provide a clearer picture of the longer-term impacts of the pandemic, signs of potentially lasting and unequalizing effects have emerged after 2020
    DOI: 10.1596/38003
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  • 80
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    A Model of Amazon Deforestation, Trade and Labor Market Dynamics (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (29 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Porcher, Charly A Model of Amazon Deforestation, Trade and Labor Market Dynamics
    Keywords: Adaptation To Climate Change ; Amazon Deforestation ; Climate Change Economics ; Climate Change Mitigation ; Climate Change Mitigation and Green House Gases ; Environment ; Environmental Sustainabilty ; Green Growth ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Macroeconomics and Growth ; Manufacturing and Environmental Sustainability ; Rural Development ; Skills Training ; Spacial Equalibrium Model of Deforestation ; Structural Policy and Reform ; Sustainable Land Management
    Abstract: This paper develops a dynamic spatial equlibrium model of Amazon deforestation, accounting for trade and labor markets dynamics. It uses this model to study the impact of local sectoral shocks and policies on deforestation. Conditional on the assumptions on key parameters, the analysis suggests the following: 1) an increase in external commodity demand increases deforestation; 2) agricultural productivity gains within the Amazon region likely increase deforestation (but reduce deforestation in the rest of the world) 3) manufacturing productivity in urban centers in the Amazon region decreases deforestation, especially if manufacturing firms have short rural value chains and if complemented by investments in education and training and measures to attract skills; 4) reducing transport costs increases deforestation unless it sufficiently supports higher export competitiveness of urban production; and 5) industrial policy focused on raising urban productivity, especially in sectors with short rural value chains, can reduce deforestation. The paper then discusses how policies aimed at increasing local sectoral productivity in the Amazon region could complement other measures specifically aimed at protecting the forest. Among such measures are incentivizing governments to designate undesignated public forests, enforcing forest protection laws (command and control), incentivizing afforestation, and creating alternative livelihoods for farmers in rural and urban areas
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10163
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    Digitizing Cash Transfers to Remote Rural Populations : Challenges and Solutions from the Experience of Zambia (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Social Protection and Labor Discussion Papers
    Keywords: Digital Divide ; Information and Communication Technologies ; Poverty Reduction ; Rural Communities ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Social Protections and Assistance ; Social Protections and Labor
    Abstract: There is currently a major focus on digitization within African countries, with the interest of, on the one hand, increasing efficiency and lowering the cost-of-service delivery, and on the other hand, increasing financial inclusion for excluded parts of the population. Zambia provides an important case study of digitization of social protection transfers. Whilst Zambia is sparsely populated with remote rural populations often living up to 100 km from the nearest town, making beneficiaries hard to reach with digital services, the country has successfully demonstrated that cash transfers can be digitized for remote rural populations to varying extents, tailored to their particular context. This Discussion Note presents challenges faced and solutions found in digitizing cash transfer payments in Zambia, which may be of interest to other countries embarking on similar endeavors
    DOI: 10.1596/38221
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    October 2022 Update to the Multidimensional Poverty Measure : What's New (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Other papers
    Keywords: Inequality ; Poverty Assessment ; Poverty Lines ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Reduction
    Abstract: The World Bank's Multidimensional Poverty Measure (MPM) presents a broader understanding of poverty beyond just the monetary dimension by incorporating access to education and basic infrastructure as additional dimension of well-being. It aims to thus highlight additional deprivations experienced by poor households beyond the monetary headcount ratio at the 2.15 dollars international poverty line. To estimate the MPM in a standard way for as many countries as possible, data limitations result in a trade-off between the number of dimensions that can be included and the number of countries that have the required harmonized indicators. Both education and access to basic infrastructure are generally available in household surveys across the world. The World Bank's measure takes inspiration and guidance from other prominent multidimensional measures, particularly the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) developed by UNDP and Oxford University. The MPM and MPI differ in one important aspect: the MPM includes the monetary poverty dimension, measured as having household income or consumption per capita that is less than 2.15 dollars per day, the new International Poverty Line at 2017 PPPs published by the World Bank in 2022. A focus on non-monetary deprivations for the income-poor highlights to policymakers the importance of improving other aspects of human welfare that may not be well-captured by the monetary measure alone. For example, households that are income poor as well as deprived in non-monetary dimensions face worse levels of well-being than households that are only income poor but have good access to services and education. It is also useful to measure deprivations in basic services faced by non-income-poor households, including households that leave extreme poverty but continue to experience nonmonetary deprivations, as these households face different constraints to well-being. A poverty measure that includes nonmonetary aspects thus highlights deprivations that may otherwise remain hidden. Securing higher living standards for a population becomes more challenging when poverty in all its forms is considered, but it can provide policymakers a roadmap for and a means of monitoring improvements in welfare
    DOI: 10.1596/38203
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  • 83
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    Institutional Analysis of the Implementation of Utility-Scale Solar Projects in Ghana (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Other papers
    Keywords: Climate Change Mitigation and Green House Gases ; Energy ; Environment ; Green Issues ; Renewable Energy ; Rural Development ; Solar Energy
    Abstract: The World Bank is exploring opportunities to accelerate climate action and low-carbon resilient development pathways by supporting Ghana in enhancing and implementing its nationally determined contribution (NDC). One of the areas identified under the NDC is the support to increase utility-scale solar energy (USSE) generation in the country which is in line with the policy action to increase the share of renewable energy (RE) generation in Ghana's energy mix. In preparation for this, the World Bank has commissioned this consultancy assignment titled Institutional Analysis of the Implementation of Utility-Scale Solar Projects in Ghana
    DOI: 10.1596/38239
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    The Impact of COVID-19 on Education in Latin America : Long-Run Implications for Poverty and Inequality (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (49 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Bracco, Jessica The Impact of COVID-19 on Education in Latin America: Long-Run Implications for Poverty and Inequality
    Keywords: COVID-19 Pandemic ; Education ; Education Impact of Covid ; Human Capital Formation ; Human Capital Impact of Covid ; Income ; Inequality ; Living Standards ; Pandemic Education Impact ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Primary Education ; School Closure Impact ; Social Capital ; Social Development ; Youth
    Abstract: The shock of the COVID-19 pandemic affected the human capital formation of children and youths. As a consequence of this disruption, the pandemic is likely to imply permanent lower levels of human capital. This paper provides new evidence on the impact of COVID-19 and school closures on education in Latin America by exploiting harmonized microdata from a large set of national household surveys carried out in 2020, during the pandemic. In addition, the paper uses microsimulations to assess the potential effect of changes in human capital due to the COVID-19 crisis on future income distributions. The findings show that the pandemic is likely to have significant long-run consequences in terms of incomes and poverty if strong compensatory measures are not taken soon
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10259
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  • 85
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    Breaking Barriers : Female Entrepreneurs Who Cross Over to Male-Dominated Sectors (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Women in Development and Gender Study
    Keywords: Gender ; Inequality ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Private Sector Economics ; Small and Medium Size Enterprises
    Abstract: The report focuses on sectoral choice as one of the contributors to the gender gap in firm performance. It explores the difference in profits among female entrepreneurs who cross over into male-dominated sectors (MDS) compared to those who remain in traditionally female-concentrated sectors (FCS). The report provides a snapshot of the factors associated with being a female entrepreneur who crosses over to MDS, including the most salient cross-country ones that are associated with breaking into and surviving in these sectors. Based on this analysis, it offers evidence-based programs and policies which can support women to cross over into more profitable sectors and contribute to their business performance more generally. The studies in this report were conducted across three regions and in ten countries (Sub-Saharan Africa: Botswana, Uganda, Ethiopia, and Guinea, in Latin America and the Caribbean: Peru and Mexico, and in East Asia and Pacific: Cambodia, Lao People's Democratic Republic (PDR), Vietnam, and Indonesia). The report also draws from the findings of the global multi-country future of business survey of entrepreneurs carried out through a social media platform
    DOI: 10.1596/36940
    URL: Deutschlandweit zugänglich
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  • 86
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    Rwanda Economic Update, January 2022, Edition No. 18 : Boosting Regional Integration in the Post-COVID Era (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Economic Updates and Modeling
    Keywords: Business Cycles and Stabilization Policies ; Coronavirus ; COVID-19 ; Economic Growth ; Economic Recovery ; Fiscal and Monetary Policy ; Inequality ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poverty Reduction
    Abstract: Global economic growth has picked up in 2021 and has now surpassed its pre-pandemic level. The National Bank of Rwanda (NBR) has maintained an accommodative monetary stance and other measures to support the recovery, taking advantage of low inflation. The government's continued fiscal expansion is also providing support to the economy. Regional integration offers significant benefits for Rwanda, including greater potential for scale economies, opportunities for learning to export and produce higher-quality goods, and cooperation to improve trade facilitation. Regional trade will be enhanced by boosting trade with non- East African Community (EAC) members. The African continental free trade area (AfCFTA) can boost growth and trade integration. The development of Rwanda as a regional logistics hub, serving as an intermediating node between the East and Central Africa regions offers prospects to increase revenues and generate efficiency gains through the concentration of logistics services. The white paper on logistics and distribution services strategy for Rwanda, prepared with the support of the World Bank, laid out a two-phase strategy for the rollout of Rwanda as regional logistic hub. This involved: (i) improving the efficiency of Rwanda's role as a land-bridge for re-exports to Goma in Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC); and (ii) establishing a regional logistics hub in Rwanda linked to a primary multi-modal hub at Kisangani and a secondary multi-modal hub at Kindu
    DOI: 10.1596/36928
    URL: Deutschlandweit zugänglich
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  • 87
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    Million Dollar Plants and Retail Prices (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (62 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Bhardwaj, Abhishek Million Dollar Plants and Retail Prices
    Keywords: Household Shopping Data ; Industry ; Inequality ; Inflation ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Million Dollar Plant Impact ; Private Sector Development ; Quality of Life ; Retail Inflation ; Social Impact of Amazon ; Wage Effect On Retail Prices ; Wages, Compensation and Benefits ; Wholesale and Retail Trade Industry ; Worker Protection
    Abstract: This paper studies how the opening of a Million Dollar Plant (MDP) affects income inequality, by focusing on a new mechanism: retail inflation. Using detailed barcode-level prices, the paper shows that local barcode-level prices increased in winning counties compared to runner up counties after a MDP enters. The paper further shows that households in winning counties spend less time shopping for deals and discounts and more time on work. Wages also go up in winning counties, but only for high-skilled workers. The paper builds a model of monopolistic firms with variable mark-ups and non-homothetic consumer preferences. Consumers become less price sensitive as they substitute shopping time for more working time in response to rising labor demand generated by the entry of a MDP, and firms respond to less elastic consumer demand by raising their mark-ups. Analysis using the model and detailed reduced form evidence shows that establishing a MDP only increases wages of certain high-skilled workers, but it increases overall county-level prices, thus creating larger increases in income inequality in winning counties compared to runner-up counties
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-9995
    URL: Deutschlandweit zugänglich
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  • 88
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    Gender Differences in Household Coping Strategies for COVID-19 in Kenya (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (28 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Xu, Yuanwei Gender Differences in Household Coping Strategies for COVID-19 in Kenya
    Keywords: Analysis Of Poverty ; Gender ; Gender and Development ; Gender and Economics ; Gender and Poverty ; Gender Difference ; Gender Inequality ; Household Consumption Expenditure ; Household Head Age ; Inequality ; Intimate Partner Violence ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poverty and Equity ; Poverty Reduction
    Abstract: Understanding how different households cope with COVID-19 among a vulnerable population is important for the policy design aiming at relieving hunger and poverty in a low income setting. This paper uses original household data from five waves of a phone survey conducted between May 2020 and June 2021 in Kenya (sample size 31,715) and investigates the gender differences in household coping strategies during the COVID-19 shock. It finds that female-headed households are less likely to cope by selling assets or taking loans, compared with male-headed households. Instead, femaleheaded households rely more on social networks to cope. No difference in coping by reducing meals is observed across these two types of households. This paper documents that the reasons behind the gender difference include that female-headed households are poorer, and they are more likely to rely on friends and family to cope with shocks even prior to the COVID-19 shock. The findings suggest that widowed and divorced women are in high need of relief programs, and governments should provide easily accessible loans to avoid negative impacts in the long term from households selling assets
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-9959
    URL: Deutschlandweit zugänglich
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  • 89
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    A Gender Employment Gap Index (GEGI) : A Simple Measure of the Economic Gains from Closing Gender Employment Gaps, with an Application to the Pacific Islands (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (30 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Pennings, Steven Michael A Gender Employment Gap Index (GEGI): A Simple Measure of the Economic Gains from Closing Gender Employment Gaps, with an Application to the Pacific Islands
    Keywords: Change in Employment ; Employment and Unemployment ; Employment Categories ; Employment GAP ; Female Employment ; Female Labor Supply ; Female Work ; Gender ; Gender and Development ; Gender Gap ; Human Capital ; Inequality ; Labor Markets ; Poverty Reduction ; Social Protections and Labor
    Abstract: Despite a policy consensus that closing gender employment gaps will boost economic growth, relatively little is known about the size of these gains in many developing countries. This paper develops a new Gender Employment Gap Index (GEGI), which is equal to the size of long-run GDP per capita gains from closing gender employment gaps. The GEGI is simple and transparent and can be easily constructed using closed-form expressions for almost all countries using macroeconomic employment rate data by gender. The basic variant of the GEGI is the gap between male and female employment as a share of total employment. The full GEGI is similar, but instead of using an aggregate employment gap, the full GEGI is the weighted average of a "better employment gap" and "other employment gap." The basic and full GEGIs are similar (correlation of 0.97), and both average 19 percent across countries. This means that GDP per capita in the long run would be almost 20 percent higher if female employment were exogenously increased to be the same as men's (other things being equal). The paper also provides an application for the Pacific Islands, for which a simple measure like the GEGI is particularly important given the lack of alternative estimates
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-9942
    URL: Deutschlandweit zugänglich
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  • 90
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    Estimating the Economic and Distributional Impacts of the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (46 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Estrades Pineyrua, Carmen Estimating the Economic and Distributional Impacts of the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership
    Keywords: Business Cycles and Stabilization Policies ; Common Carriers Industry ; Computable General Equilibrium Model ; Construction Industry ; Electrical Equipment ; Food and Beverage Industry ; General Manufacturing ; Global Computable General Equilibrium ; Income per Capita ; Industry ; Inequality ; International Trade and Trade Rules ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Meat Product ; Paper Product ; Plastics and Rubber Industry ; Pulp and Paper Industry ; Real Income ; Rules Of Origin ; Set Of Rules ; Textiles, Apparel and Leather Industry ; Trade Costs ; Trade Policy ; Trade-Weighted Average ; Transport
    Abstract: This paper applies a top-down, macro-micro modeling framework that links a computable general equilibrium model with the survey-based global income distribution dynamics model to assess the economic and distributional effects of the implementation of the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP). Reductions of tariffs and non-tariff measures, implementation of a rule of origin, together with productivity gains stemming from trade cost reductions can strengthen regional trade and value chains among Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership members. The results of the analysis indicate that in an already deeply integrated region, tariff liberalization alone brings little benefit, with estimated real income gains of 0.21 percent relative to the baseline (without the RCEP) in 2035. With liberal rules of origin, the gains in real income could double to 0.49 percent. The biggest benefits accrue when the productivity gains are considered, increasing real income by as much as 2.5 percent for the trade bloc. In this scenario, trade among RCEP members increases by 12.3 percent in 2035 relative to the baseline. The RCEP also has the potential to lift 27 million additional people to middle-class status by 2035. It will also boost wages, with faster gains in sectors that employ larger shares of women. The aggregate effects mask large variety of outcomes across countries, with Vietnam expected to register the highest trade and income gains. Implementation of the RCEP help partially mitigate the negative economic impacts of COVID-19 in the East Asia and the Pacific region
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-9939
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  • 91
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    Turkey Economic Monitor February 2022 : Sailing Against the Tide (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Economic Updates and Modeling
    Keywords: Economic Modeling ; Inequality ; Inflation ; International Trade and Trade Rules ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poverty Reduction
    Abstract: Turkey's economic performance has been a tale of two economies, overall high growth, matched by a deterioration in macro-financial conditions. Good progress in vaccination rollouts allowed Turkey to reopen gradually in 2021 despite a continued rise in Coronavirus (COVID-19) cases. Real economic activity remained strong, driven by strong broad-based export growth and domestic demand. Exports of goods reached record high levels in 2021 supported by buoyant external demand, improved price competitiveness and demand shifts to Turkey due to rising shipping costs. Turkey's GDP grew by 22 percent year-on-year in 2021Q2-the second highest among G-20 countries-and 7.4 percent in 2021Q3. Strong goods and services export performance helped current account deficit to narrow significantly. Robust economic activity led to strong revenue growth and supported fiscal balances. The labor market saw a good recovery in 2021 and employment levels surpassed pre-pandemic levels, supported by buoyant economic activity. The regional inequalities of the COVID-19 shock manifested in larger impacts for women from Eastern regions, widening pre-existing gender gaps. The authorities began to cut interest rates in September, by 500 basis points by the end of 2021, despite rising inflation and inflation expectations. This has exacerbated macro-financial conditions and impacted investor confidence - causing financial market turbulence, large deprecation of the Lira, higher inflation, and increased dollarization. The Lira has been the most depreciating currency among emerging market economies this year. The large depreciation of the Lira coupled with rising international prices caused inflation to increase to its highest rate since the August 2018 shock
    DOI: 10.1596/37035
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  • 92
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    New Algorithm to Estimate Inequality Measures in Cross-Survey Imputation : An Attempt to Correct the Underestimation of Extreme Values (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (24 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Betti, Gianni New Algorithm to Estimate Inequality Measures in Cross-Survey Imputation: An Attempt to Correct the Underestimation of Extreme Values
    Keywords: Bias Reduction ; Household Survey ; Inequality ; Inequality Indicators ; Moroccan HBS ; Moroccan LFS ; Poverty and Inequality ; Poverty Assessment ; Poverty Estimation ; Poverty Indicators ; Poverty Map ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Statistics ; Poverty Trends ; Survey-To-Survey Imputation
    Abstract: This paper contributes to the debate on ways to improve the calculation of inequality measures in developing countries experiencing severe budget constraints. Linear regression-based survey-to-survey imputation techniques are most frequently discussed in the literature. These are effective at estimating predictions of poverty indicators but are much less accurate with inequality indicators. To demonstrate this limited accuracy, the first part of the paper discusses several simulations using Moroccan Household Budget Surveys and Labor Force Surveys. The paper proposes a method for overcoming these limitations based on an algorithm that minimizes the sum of the squared difference between a certain number of direct estimates of an index and its empirical version obtained from the predicted values. Indeed, when comparing the estimated results with those directly estimated from the original sample, the bias is negligible. Furthermore, the inequality indices for the years for which there are only model estimates, rather than direct information on expenditures, seem to be consistent with Moroccan economic trends
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10013
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  • 93
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    The Effects of Fiscal Policy on Inequality and Poverty in The Gambia (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Other Poverty Study
    Keywords: Equity and Development ; Fiscal and Monetary Policy ; Fiscal Policy ; Inequality ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poverty ; Poverty Impact Evaluation ; Poverty Reduction ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Social Development ; Taxes
    Abstract: The overall objective of this study is to assess the impact of the fiscal system on poverty and inequality in The Gambia as of 2015. The study presents the first empirical evidence on the distributional impacts of taxes and social spending on households in The Gambia. Furthermore, it also evaluated the distributional effects of recent fiscal policy reforms in The Gambia. The assessment was based on the Commitment to Equity (CEQ) Methodology with data from the Integrated Household Survey of 2015 and fiscal administrative data from various government ministries, departments, and agencies. The analyses show that while the fiscal system in The Gambia reduces inequality by 1.2 Gini points, it increases the national poverty headcount by 5.3 percentage points as all households (including the poor) are net payers into the fiscal system. Most of the inequality reduction is due to primary education benefits, with a marginal contribution of 0.44 Gini points, and most of the poverty increase is due to custom duties and VAT with marginal contributions of -2.63 percentage points and -2.07 percentage points, respectively. Simulating the effect of changes in the structure of personal income tax (PIT) and the government's ongoing absorption of the School Feeding Program indicate that these changes reduce inequality but do not offset the impoverishing effect of the fiscal system. Hence, more cashable transfer programs targeted to the poor are needed to offset the impoverishing effect of indirect taxes and make the fiscal system more pro-poor
    DOI: 10.1596/37187
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  • 94
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    Gender Equity in Land and Forest Tenure in REDD+ Programming (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Other Environmental Study
    Keywords: Agriculture ; Forestry ; Forestry Management ; Gender ; Gender and Rural Development ; Land Management ; Rural Development
    Abstract: The purpose of this study is to understand the legal and policy constraints and opportunities in each of the 17-carbon fund (CF) countries affecting women's land and forest tenure. The study also explores women's ability to exercise land and forest rights in statutory and customary systems; how these rights may be affected by the CF programs (ERPs and BSPs); as well as what is needed to further protect and strengthen women's rights to land and forest tenure along with their ability to govern in the CF countries. This synthesis report provides a big-picture overview of the findings from all the studies; additional and more detailed information related to the activities in each country is available in the 10 country scans and seven deep-dive country reports. Because this report is a synthesis of findings from 17 countries, all statements taken from other sources are cited in the country studies. Furthermore, a bibliography of sources can be found at the end of this synthesis report
    DOI: 10.1596/37129
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  • 95
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    Europe and Central Asia Economic Update, Spring 2022 : War in the Region (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (118 pages)
    Series Statement: Europe and Central Asia Economic Update
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als
    Keywords: Economic Forecasts ; Economic Impact ; Food Insecurity ; Inequality ; Poverty ; War ; War Conflict
    Abstract: In February 2022, the world was shocked by the Russian Federation's invasion of Ukraine. The war is having a devastating impact on human life and causing economic destruction in both countries, and will lead to significant economic losses in the Europe and Central Asia (ECA) region and the rest of the world. It comes at a particularly vulnerable time for ECA as its economic recovery was expected to be held back by scarring from the pandemic and lingering structural weaknesses. The economic impact of the conflict has reverberated through multiple channels, including commodity and financial markets, trade and migration links, and the damaging impact on confidence. Moreover, the war has added to mounting concerns about a sharp global slowdown, surging inflation and debt, and a spike in poverty levels. Neighboring ECA countries are likely to suffer considerable economic damage because of their strong trade, financial, and migration links with Russia and Ukraine. The war is also causing a destabilizing wave of refugees, financial stresses in vulnerable countries, runaway inflation expectations, and food insecurity. A protracted conflict could further heighten policy uncertainty and fragment critical trade and investment networks
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  • 96
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    Railways in Developing Countries : A Global Review (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Mobility and Transport Connectivity
    Keywords: Rural Development ; Rural Roads and Transport ; Urban Development
    Abstract: As a green mode of transportation, railways have an important role to play in decarbonizing transport through shifting transport from more polluting modes of transport such as road and air. Railways can enable economic growth, which in turn generates increasing transport demand, while keeping greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions low. However, in many parts of the world, railways have lost traffic and market share to air and road transport modes. As countries seek to reduce their GHG emissions, while still delivering on economic growth, many are rethinking the role of rail. Many developing countries have existing railway networks, which will provide the starting point for efforts to increase rail in the transport mix. This report provides a basic stocktaking of those railways, explaining the industry structure and the current situation. Basic data on network size; volume; passenger fares and freight tariffs; labor productivity; network density; and perceived service quality assets, traffic, pricing and staffing have been compiled into the Developing Country Rail Database, which could be useful for analysis and comparisons across regions. The data have been collected from various public sources-annual railway or regulator reports and/or national statistical annuals. Most data are for 2018. The report covers railways providing services to the general public in 77 countries. Not included are the railways in most higher income countries (North America, Europe, Australasia, and northeast Asia), private mining railways and China, whose railway network has been covered in numerous other reports. The information shared in this report is presented in seven regional summaries, which group together railways sharing a common geographic area and other characteristics: South America; Sub-Saharan Africa; South Asia; Southeast Asia; the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and Mongolia; and the Middle East. These summaries include basic data on institutional arrangements
    DOI: 10.1596/37394
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  • 97
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    Resilient Transport in Small Island Developing States : From a Call for Action to Action (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Other Urban Study
    Keywords: Adaptation To Climate Change ; Climate Change Impacts ; Environment ; Rural Development ; Rural Roads and Transport ; Social Aspects of Climate Change ; Social Development
    Abstract: Small island developing states (SIDS) are among the most exposed, vulnerable countries in the world to natural hazards and the impacts of climate change. SIDS are already experiencing significant economic and social losses from climate change impacts. Extreme weather events such as flooding and hurricanes significantly affect the transport sector, with damage from such events accounting for a large percentage of total infrastructure damage costs. The need for climate adaptation is recognized in SIDS' nationally determined contributions to the Paris Agreement under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The World Bank supports its clients in implementing nationally determined contribution objectives and actions. The World Bank's programmatic technical assistance, Resilient Transport in Small Island Developing States, implemented with the aim of enhancing the resilience of the transport sector in SIDS, was delivered in three phases. The objective of this report is to help practitioners integrate climate resilience considerations into transport asset management and thus enhance climate resilience in the transport sector of SIDS (Phases 2 and 3 of the technical assistance). The report starts by introducing the topic of natural hazards and climate change in SIDS and how they affect the transport sector. The report describes how governments can develop resilient transport asset management systems (TAMS) and then summarizes the activities implemented in four SIDS, Cape Verde in Africa, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines in the Caribbean, and Solomon Islands and Vanuatu in the Pacific,and shares lessons learned to improve the approach and framework. Finally, the report introduces an online training course on resilient TAMS and the i-Knowledge platform
    DOI: 10.1596/37430
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  • 98
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    The Distributional Impact of Serbia's Taxes and Social Spending (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (50 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Nguyen, Trang V The Distributional Impact of Serbia's Taxes and Social Spending
    Keywords: Adverse Impact Mitigation ; Distributional Impact ; Fiscal and Monetary Policy ; Fiscal Policy ; Inequality ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poverty Reduction ; Social Spending ; Taxation and Subsidies ; Taxes ; Transfers
    Abstract: In the context of economic recovery and structural reforms to boost Serbia's living standards, understanding the impact of fiscal policy on inequality and poverty is key to inform policy choices. This paper's key research question is to analyze the redistributive effect of fiscal policy on income distribution and poverty in Serbia. It advances on the previous literature by comprehensively assessing the individual and combined effects of taxes and social spending on both inequality and poverty in Serbia, using the Commitment to Equity Assessment approach. The findings suggest that Serbia's fiscal system is redistributive, reducing the Gini coefficient of income once taxes, transfers, and in-kind benefits in education and health are taken into account. However, the inequality-reducing impact of the fiscal system in Serbia is somewhat smaller than what is observed in other countries in Central and Eastern Europe and Latin America, where similar analysis has been applied. Moreover, and like in some other countries in Europe and Central Asia, the fiscal system increases poverty. Direct social transfers in Serbia are pro-poor and inequality reducing, but their impacts are not large enough to fully offset those of taxation since spending on these programs is small. This analysis of fiscal incidence in Serbia provides a useful basis for assessing the impacts of potential changes in taxes or benefits, which can inform options to mitigate short-term adverse impacts and build support for reforms
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10110
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  • 99
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    Is Dirt Cheap? : The Economic Costs of Failing to Meet Soil Health Requirements on Smallholder Farms (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (39 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Gourlay, Sydney Is Dirt Cheap? The Economic Costs of Failing to Meet Soil Health Requirements on Smallholder Farms
    Keywords: Agricultural Growth and Rural Development ; Agricultural Productivity ; Agriculture ; Agriculture and Farming Systems ; Crop Yields ; Household Surveys ; Rural Development ; Smallholders ; Soil ; Sub-Saharan Africa ; Technical Efficiency ; Uganda
    Abstract: Agricultural productivity is hindered in smallholder farming systems due to several factors, including farmers' inability to meet crop-specific soil requirements. This paper focuses on soil suitability for maize production and creates multidimensional soil suitability profiles of smallholder maize plots in Uganda, while quantifying forgone production due to cultivation on less-than-suitable land and identifying groups of farmers that are disproportionately impacted. The analysis leverages the unique socioeconomic data from a subnational survey conducted in Eastern Uganda, inclusive of plot-level, objective measures of maize yields and soil attributes. Stochastic frontier models of maize yields are estimated within each soil suitability class to understand differences in returns to inputs, technical efficiency, and potential yield. Only 13 percent of farmers are cultivating soil that is highly suitable for maize production, while the vast majority are cultivating only moderately suitable plots. Farmers cultivating highly suitable soil have the potential to increase their observed yields by as much as 86 percent, while those at the opposite end of the suitability distribution (with marginally suitable land) operate closer to the production frontier and can only increase yields by up to 59 percent, given the current technology set. There is heterogeneity in potential gains across the wealth distribution, with poorer households facing more heavily constrained potential. Assuming no change in technologies and management practices used by Ugandan farmers, there are limited economic gains tied to closing suitability class-specific productivity gaps, or even at the extreme reaching the average potential productivity levels observed in the high suitability class
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10108
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  • 100
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    The Welfare Implications of COVID-19 for Fragile and Conflict-Affected Areas (2022)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (37 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Tabakis, Chrysostomos The Welfare Implications of COVID-19 for Fragile and Conflict-Affected Areas
    Keywords: Access and Equity in Basic Education ; Access of Poor To Social Services ; Agriculture ; Conflict ; Covid In Conflict-Affected Households ; COVID-19 Restriction Social Impact ; Education ; Food and Nutrition Policy ; Food Insecurity ; Food Security ; Fragility ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Welfare ; Inequality ; Pandemic Social Impact ; Violence
    Abstract: Understanding the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on households' welfare in areas at the admin-1 level subject to fragility, conflict, and violence is important to inform programs and policies in this context. Harmonized data from high-frequency phone surveys indicate that, at the onset of the pandemic, a higher fraction of households in areas affected by fragility, conflict, and violence reported income declines and a higher fraction of respondents reported that they had stopped working since the beginning of the crisis. Households in areas affected by fragility, conflict, and violence were far less likely to report receiving government assistance than those in other areas. These findings suggest that the initial effects of the pandemic exacerbated preexisting economic gaps between areas affected by fragility, conflict, and violence and other areas, indicating that an even larger effort will be necessary in areas affected by fragility, conflict, and violence to recover from COVID-19, with implications for funding needs and policy as well as program design
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10081
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