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  • MPI Ethno. Forsch.  (37)
  • Miroudot, Sébastien  (29)
  • Shepherd, Ben
  • Trade  (37)
  • 1
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    Interactions between goods and services in international trade : Implications for customs valuation and rules of origin (2023)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (37 p.) , 21 x 28cm.
    Series Statement: OECD Trade Policy Papers no.274
    Keywords: Trade
    Abstract: This paper examines whether the customs valuation systems and rules of origin are sufficiently attuned to the changing landscape of commercial realities characterised by new and diverse configurations of goods-services trade. It proposes a framework to categorise relevant configurations of goods-services trade and applies it to identify potential challenges arising from the current procedures for customs valuation and origin determination. While the existing rules provide an adequate structure for doing business and achieving legitimate trade policy objectives, challenges can arise across different configurations of goods-services trade. Options for policy solutions include developing guidelines and implementation standards to fine-tune customs valuation and rules of origin that apply to specific goods-services trade configurations. The promotion of multilateral openness, harmonisation of rules and practices, and transparency of jurisprudence would contribute to minimising the impact and frequency of potential challenges.
    DOI: 10.1787/e4c86fdd-en
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  • 2
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    Deglobalisation? The reorganisation of global value chains in a changing world (2023)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (46 p.) , 21 x 28cm.
    Series Statement: OECD Trade Policy Papers no.272
    Keywords: Trade
    Abstract: New evidence is presented on the evolution of global value chains (GVCs) since the Great Financial Crisis. Drawing on novel OECD inter-country input-output tables in previous year’s prices, it shows there was no general trend towards deglobalisation in the period up to 2020. The fragmentation of production remained at a historically high level in 2019 and close to the level of 2011, confirming a stabilisation of the depth of global economic integration. Different trends are observed across economies: in the European Union, the import intensity of production grew before the COVID-19 pandemic, while China increasingly relied on domestic inputs. To explain these trends, bilateral trade costs are estimated and their cumulative impact along value chains is then calculated; structural changes and higher uncertainty seem to be the main drivers of increasing cumulative trade costs for some GVCs. To preserve the benefits of GVCs, policy makers should seek to increase the ease of trade and reduce uncertainty.
    DOI: 10.1787/b15b74fe-en
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  • 3
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    Challenges to international trade and the global economy : Recovery from COVID-19 and Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine (2023)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (55 p.) , 21 x 28cm.
    Series Statement: OECD Trade Policy Papers no.265
    Keywords: Economics ; Trade
    Abstract: Amidst the recovery from the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine has resulted in new challenges to the global economy and to international trade. This report relies on detailed trade data to assess the impact of these two overlapping shocks on international trade and supply chains. In February 2022, global trade was approaching pre-Covid levels in absolute terms, but with a different product and geographical composition resulting in a continued sense of tension in the trading system. Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine has added a new dimension of challenges as it has led to deliberate radical interruptions of trade linkages between Russia, Ukraine and many industrialised economies, with significant repercussions on prices of key commodities in the energy and agricultural sectors.
    DOI: 10.1787/5c561274-en
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  • 4
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    Leveraging Trade for More and Better Job Opportunities in Developing Countries : A Framework for Policy (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (34 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Shepherd, Ben Leveraging Trade for More and Better Job Opportunities in Developing Countries: A Framework for Policy
    Keywords: Economic Integration ; International Economics and Trade ; Labor Markets ; Labor Policy ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Tariff ; Taxation and Subsidies ; Trade ; Trade Policy ; Trade-Related Tax
    Abstract: Trade and labor markets are intimately connected. This connection presents governments with a dual economic challenge that cannot be resolved without social compromise: maximizing aggregate gains but minimizing disaggregated costs, which can include losses to individuals and groups. This paper draws on recent research to develop a framework for thinking rigorously about these linkages. It then examines aspects of policy design and implementation that relate directly to labor market outcomes. It discusses three sets of policies that are required to help resolve the government's dual challenge in a sustainable way: policies for people, sectors, and places. The framework includes policies to mitigate losses and facilitate movement of workers, classical trade policies, and a broad set of complementary policies that reduce trade costs. It also looks at the need for fiscal space to implement policies, and highlights the tension between tariff reductions and trade-related taxes, especially in countries where trade taxes account for a significant proportion of total government revenue
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10637
    URL: Deutschlandweit zugänglich
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  • 5
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    Services exported together with goods (2020)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
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    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 39 Seiten) , Illustrationen
    Series Statement: OECD trade policy papers no. 236
    Keywords: Trade ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Graue Literatur
    Abstract: How prevalent are services sold together with goods? Using aggregate and micro-data, this report assesses this prevalence so as to gain a better understanding of how firms combine goods and services in their exports. Leaving aside the specific case of distribution services, 'Other business services', 'Construction' and 'Research and development' are the most common services supplied by manufacturing firms. With respect to industries, 'paper and printing', as well as 'repair and installation' come first in terms of prevalence of bundles of goods and services. Since the trade regime is different for trade in goods and trade in services, manufacturing firms engaged in servitisation strategies may face higher trade barriers just by expanding their activities in sectors that are less open to trade. When negotiating trade agreements, policy makers need to take into account complementarities between goods and services, and look at the joint restrictiveness for goods and services.
    DOI: 10.1787/275e520a-en
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  • 6
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    Returns to intangible capital in global value chains : new evidence on trends and policy determinants (2020)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
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    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 63 Seiten) , Illustrationen
    Series Statement: OECD trade policy papers no. 240
    Keywords: Trade ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Graue Literatur
    Abstract: Intangible capital, a broad category of knowledge-based assets that lack physical embodiment, increasingly shapes the distribution of income in global value chains (GVCs). While some intangible assets are reported in national accounts (e.g. R&D or computer software and databases), others are hard to detect in conventional statistics (e.g. brand value or organisational capital). In this paper, we combine information on factor income from national accounts with the OECD Inter-Country Input-Output tables in order to estimate returns to measured (i.e. included in national accounts) and ‘unmeasured’ intangible capital (captured as a residual) in GVCs. We find that total intangible capital accounts for about 27% of income in manufacturing GVCs and that this share has increased between 2005 and 2015 in OECD countries. The paper highlights differences across GVC stages and specific types of GVCs. A significant share of income is captured at the distribution stage, particularly in buyer-driven value chains. An econometric analysis suggests that trade and investment openness are important determinants of patterns in returns to intangible capital in GVCs. Direct public funding of R&D and the quality of intellectual property protection are associated with higher returns to intangible assets.
    DOI: 10.1787/4cd06f19-en
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  • 7
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    Micro-evidence on corporate relationships in global value chains : the role of trade, FDI and strategic partnerships (2019)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 52 Seiten) , Illustrationen
    Series Statement: OECD trade policy papers no. 227
    Keywords: Multinationales Unternehmen ; Auslandsinvestition ; Außenhandel ; Wertschöpfung ; Unternehmenskooperation ; Trade ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Graue Literatur
    Abstract: Global value chains (GVCs) have sharpened the interdependencies between trade and foreign direct investment (FDI). Using a novel micro-level dataset covering about 27 000 corporate relationships of 147 multinational enterprises (MNEs) in 13 sectors, new evidence is provided on how firms organise their production globally by combining trade with investment, and on a range of non-equity, contract-based partnerships. The analysis leads to five stylised facts. First, MNE activities are a combination of trade, FDI and strategic partnerships. All firms rely on a mix of these different types of corporate relationships. Second, the configuration of trade, investment and strategic partnerships varies across sectors, firms and markets. The results highlight considerable firm-level heterogeneity within the same industry and across the different modes of entry. Third, investment performs various functions in GVCs. In addition to traditional forms of FDI such as “market-seeking” or “input-seeking”, investment “in capabilities” or “conglomerate” FDI also account for a relevant share of equity-based relationships. Fourth, support business functions emerge as key building blocks in GVCs, which suggests that policy reforms in transversal services sectors that support all GVCs should merit special attention. Fifth, GVCs display a clear geographical organisation. While domestic corporate relationships may lead to higher volumes of activities, in terms of the number of relationships MNEs have more partners abroad. Moreover, the large majority of GVC interactions take place within OECD countries. Overall, the complex and heterogeneous interlinkages observed in modern firm strategies highlight the importance of ensuring a level playing field for both trade and investment.
    DOI: 10.1787/f6225ffb-en
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  • 8
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    The value of market access and national treatment commitments in services trade agreements (2018)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 31 Seiten) , Illustrationen
    Series Statement: OECD trade policy papers no. 213
    Keywords: Dienstleistungshandel ; GATS ; Regionale Wirtschaftsintegration ; Handelsabkommen ; Handelsliberalisierung ; Internationaler Markteintritt ; WTO-Recht ; Welt ; Trade ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Graue Literatur
    Abstract: This paper looks at market access and national treatment commitments for services in the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) and in 95 regional trade agreements (RTAs) involving the countries that are covered in the OECD Services Trade Restrictiveness Index (STRI). The objective is to quantify the impact of legal bindings on trade in services that result from a reduction in the uncertainty faced by exporters. Bilateral bindings indices are created for five broad service sectors (professional services, computer services, telecoms, financial services and transport services). They indicate how close the sector is from a fully bound regime with no possibility to introduce any new trade barrier, by comparing commitments with the actual trade regime. These bilateral indices are then tested over the period 2000-2014 in a structural gravity model. Despite differences across sectors, the results confirm that the legal bindings typically found in services trade agreements tend to have a positive impact on exports even if no actual liberalisation takes place.
    DOI: 10.1787/d8bfc8d8-en
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  • 9
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    Multinational production and trade in services (2018)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
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    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 51 Seiten) , Illustrationen
    Series Statement: OECD trade policy papers no. 212
    Keywords: Multinationales Unternehmen ; Internationale Produktion ; Dienstleistungshandel ; Betriebliche Statistik ; Wertschöpfung ; Input-Output-Analyse ; Welt ; Trade ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Graue Literatur
    Abstract: Using the OECD analytical AMNE database, this paper provides new evidence on the services activities of multinational enterprises (MNEs) and discusses the relationship between cross-border trade in services and the production of services through foreign affiliates (“mode 3” trade in services in the General Agreement on Trade in Services). An econometric analysis indicates that policies restricting trade in services (as captured in the OECD Services Trade Restrictiveness Index) are associated with a lower output of foreign affiliates not only in services industries but also in the manufacturing sector. Moreover, services trade restrictions also impact the choice of firms when it comes to engaging in exports or in foreign direct investment to serve foreign markets. Overall, the results in this paper demonstrate the intertwined nature of manufacturing and services activities in global value chains.
    DOI: 10.1787/16ec6b55-en
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  • 10
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    Multinational enterprises and global value chains : the OECD analytical AMNE database (2018)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 28 Seiten) , Illustrationen
    Series Statement: OECD trade policy papers no. 211
    Keywords: Multinationales Unternehmen ; Betriebliche Statistik ; Wertschöpfung ; Unternehmensstatistik ; OECD-Staaten ; Trade ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Graue Literatur
    Abstract: In order to better understand the interdependencies between trade and investment in global value chains (GVCs), the OECD has developed a new dataset on the Activities of Multinational Enterprises (AMNE). This dataset starts from official AMNE statistics and combines the information with Inter-Country Input-Output (ICIO) tables to provide new insights on the trade-investment nexus in GVCs. This dataset allows the contribution of domestic firms, multinational enterprises (MNEs) and their foreign affiliates to global trade and production to be assessed. This paper details the methodology that was used to create the data, as well as the main assumptions and challenges in the work.
    DOI: 10.1787/d9de288d-en
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  • 11
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    Services in global value chains : trade patterns and gains from specialisation (2017)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 48 Seiten) , Illustrationen
    Series Statement: OECD trade policy papers no. 208
    Keywords: 2000 - 2014 ; Dienstleistungssektor ; Wertschöpfung ; Dienstleistungshandel ; Komparativer Vorteil ; Produktivitätsentwicklung ; Welt ; Trade ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Graue Literatur
    Abstract: Within global value chains (GVCs), services and manufacturing activities are intertwined. This report further investigates the role played by services in GVCs by looking at patterns of specialisation in 23 services industries over the period 2000-2014. Relying on the concept of revealed comparative advantage, it highlights that all countries have a comparative advantage in specific services industries, either in services within manufacturing value chains or in services exported as final products to consumers. A value-added approach is important to analyse the specialisation in services. In addition, there are tangible productivity gains out of this specialisation, as well as gains in terms of employment. Finally, empirical results suggest that services trade restrictiveness negatively affects bilateral flows of service value-added within GVCs. Both domestic reforms and the reduction of barriers in partner countries can benefit services sectors and the activities that rely on services inputs.
    DOI: 10.1787/06420077-en
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  • 12
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    Services in global value chains : from inputs to value-creating activities (2017)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
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    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 59 Seiten) , Illustrationen
    Series Statement: OECD trade policy papers no. 197
    Keywords: Dienstleistungssektor ; Wertschöpfung ; Dienstleistungshandel ; Leistungsbündel ; Welt ; Trade ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Arbeitspapier ; Graue Literatur
    Abstract: This report provides new evidence on the role of services in global value chains (GVCs). With the release of the Trade in Value Added database, it was highlighted that services account for a larger share of world trade than suggested by traditional statistics. But this evidence does not tell the whole story about services in GVCs. In addition to services bought as inputs, there are also services activities within manufacturing firms. Moreover, manufacturing companies increasingly produce and export services either as complements or substitutes to the goods they sell. This shift to services is related to strategies aiming at adding more value and creating a long-term relationship with customers. The report highlights that services inputs, whether domestic or foreign, account for about 37% of the value of manufacturing exports in the sample of countries covered. By adding service activities within manufacturing firms, this share increases to 53% and the overall contribution of services to exports is close to two-thirds. Across countries, between 25% and 60% of employment in manufacturing firms is found in service support functions such as R&D, engineering, transport, logistics, distribution, marketing, sales, after-sale services, IT, management and back-office support. SMEs are also part of this “servicification” and contribute to exports of services bundled with goods.
    DOI: 10.1787/465f0d8b-en
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  • 13
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    GVCs, jobs and routine content of occupations (2016)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
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    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 47 Seiten) , Illustrationen
    Series Statement: OECD trade policy papers no. 187
    Keywords: Outsourcing ; Auslandsverlagerung ; Qualifikation ; Erwerbstätigkeit ; Technischer Fortschritt ; Betriebliche Wertschöpfung ; OECD-Staaten ; 2000 - 2011 ; Trade ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Arbeitspapier ; Graue Literatur
    Abstract: This work addresses the role of global value chains (GVCs), workforce skills, ICT, innovation and industry structure in explaining employment levels of routine and non-routine occupations. The analysis encompasses 28 OECD countries over the period 2000-2011. It relies on a new country-specific measure of routine intensity built using individual-level information from the OECD Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) survey, as well as on new industry-level Trade in Value Added (TiVA) indicators of offshoring and domestic outsourcing. The results suggest that employment in all types of occupations positively relate to innovation. With respect to offshoring patterns, a positive correlation is observed between the offshoring of inputs and domestic outsourcing with more routine-intensive jobs. Taken together, the results point to the existence of complex interactions between the routine content of occupations, skills, technology and trade, which do not allow for a neat identification of “winners” and “losers” in a GVC context.
    DOI: 10.1787/5jm0mq7kr6s8-en
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  • 14
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    The routine content of occupations : new cross-country measures based on PIAAC (2016)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
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    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 31 Seiten) , Illustrationen
    Series Statement: OECD trade policy papers no. 188
    Keywords: Qualifikation ; Beruf ; Ergonomie ; Statistik ; OECD-Staaten ; Trade ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Arbeitspapier ; Graue Literatur
    Abstract: This work proposes a novel measure of the routine content of occupations, called the Routine Intensity Indicator (RII), built on data from the OECD Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) survey. The RII uses information about the extent to which workers can modify the sequence of their tasks and decide the type of tasks to be performed on the job. Based on median RII values of individuals in 3-digit occupations across 20 OECD countries, jobs are grouped into quartiles of routine-intensity. On average, in 2012, 46% of employed persons worked in non-routine (18%) or low (28%) routine intensive occupations, with the distribution differing significantly across countries. The relationship between the routine content of occupations and the skills of the workforce is also investigated. While a negative correlation does emerge between skill content and routine intensity – i.e. more routine-intensive occupations tend to be associated with lower skills – this relationship is not necessarily very strong.
    DOI: 10.1787/5jm0mq86fljg-en
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  • 15
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    Services Trade Restrictiveness Index (STRI) : logistics services (2015)
    Paris : OECD
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    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (59 S.) , graph. Darst.
    Series Statement: OECD trade policy papers 183
    Keywords: Logistikdienstleister ; Regulierung ; Dienstleistungshandel ; Handelshemmnisse ; OECD-Staaten ; Brasilien ; China ; Indien ; Indonesien ; Russland ; Südafrika ; Trade ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Arbeitspapier ; Graue Literatur
    Abstract: This paper presents the services trade restrictiveness indices (STRIs) for logistics services. The STRIs are composite indices taking values between zero and one, zero representing an open market and one a market completely closed to foreign services providers. The indices are calculated for 40 countries, the 34 OECD members and Brazil, the People’s Republic of China, India, Indonesia, the Russian Federation and South Africa. The STRIs capture de jure restrictions. This report presents the first vintage of indicators for logistics services and captures regulations in force in 2014. The scores range from 0.08 to 1 for cargo-handling services, 0.04 to 1 for storage and warehouse services, 0.02 to 0.58 for freight transport agency services and 0.03 to 1 for customs brokerage services. It is observed that the regulatory profile differs across countries. In cargo-handling and storage and warehouse services, one country reserves all services provision to a statutory monopoly while another country reserves cargo-handling to a monopoly at port. Freight transport agency has the lowest average score among four subsectors while restrictions on foreign entry, restrictions on the movement of people and regulatory transparency significantly contribute to the results. One country is completely closed to foreign participation in customs brokerage services. The paper presents the list of measures included in the indices, the scoring and weighting system for calculating the indices and an analysis of the results.
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    DOI: 10.1787/5jrw9bwpbskk-en
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  • 16
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    Water in the GATS : methodology and results (2015)
    Paris : OECD
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    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (45 S.) , graph. Darst.
    Series Statement: OECD trade policy papers 185
    Keywords: Dienstleistungssektor ; GATS ; Dienstleistungshandel ; Handelshemmnisse ; Außenwirtschaftspolitik ; Trade ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Arbeitspapier ; Graue Literatur
    Abstract: The water in the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) refers to the difference between the bound level of trade restrictiveness permitted by the GATS and the actual trade regime. Using the OECD Services Trade Restrictiveness Index (STRI), this report provides estimates of the water in 15 service sectors for 40 countries. The level of water in GATS commitments varies across sectors. It is highest in sectors where most countries have no commitments (unbound), such as audio-visual services or transport services, as well as sectors where countries tend to make commitments only for selected types of activities, such as legal services. The lowest level of water is observed in sectors such as telecoms, construction, computer and distribution services that are also characterised by a more liberal trade regime. Generally speaking, current services trade policies are much more open than what countries have committed in the GATS and sectors that are “unbound” can be fairly open.
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    DOI: 10.1787/5jrs6k35nnf1-en
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  • 17
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    Services Trade Restrictiveness Index (STRI) : computer and related services (2014)
    Paris : OECD
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    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (23 S.) , graph. Darst.
    Series Statement: OECD trade policy papers 169
    Keywords: IT-Management ; Unternehmensdienstleistung ; Dienstleistungshandel ; Handelshemmnisse ; Indexberechnung ; Science and Technology ; Trade ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Arbeitspapier ; Graue Literatur
    Abstract: This paper presents the services trade restrictiveness indices (STRIs) for computer services. The STRIs are composite indices taking values between zero and one, zero representing an open market and one a market completely closed to foreign services providers. The indices are calculated for 40 countries, the 34 OECD members and Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Russia and South Africa. The STRIs capture de jure restrictions. This report presents the first vintage of indicators for computer services and captures regulations in force in 2013. The scores range between 0.08 and 0.34, with a sample average of 0.18. Explicit barriers to trade in computer services are rare, but the sector is subject to a number of economy-wide restrictions facing all sectors. Among these, restrictions on movement of people (mode 4 in GATS terminology) make the largest contribution to the index value, followed by regulatory transparency issues. The paper presents the list of measures included in the indices, the scoring and weighting system for calculating the indices and an analysis of the results.
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    DOI: 10.1787/5jxt4np1pjzt-en
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  • 18
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    Services Trade Restrictiveness Index (STRI) : distribution services (2014)
    Paris : OECD
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    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (27 S.) , graph. Darst.
    Series Statement: OECD trade policy papers 173
    Keywords: Vertrieb ; Unternehmensdienstleistung ; Dienstleistungshandel ; Handelshemmnisse ; Indexberechnung ; Trade ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Arbeitspapier ; Graue Literatur
    Abstract: This paper presents the services trade restrictiveness indices (STRIs) for distribution services. The STRIs are composite indices taking values between zero and one, zero representing an open market and one a market completely closed to foreign services providers. The indices are calculated for 40 countries, the 34 OECD members and Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Russia and South Africa. The STRIs capture de jure restrictions. This report presents the first vintage of indicators for distribution services and captures regulations in force in 2013. The scores range between 0.02 and 0.40, with a sample average of 0.13. It is observed that the regulatory profile differs across countries. Restrictions on foreign ownership and other market entry conditions significantly contribute to the results for almost half of the countries covered by the STRI. The paper presents the list of measures included in the indices, the scoring and weighting system for calculating the indices and an analysis of the results.
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    DOI: 10.1787/5jxt4njvtfbx-en
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  • 19
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    Services Trade Restrictiveness Index (STRI) : legal and accounting services (2014)
    Paris : OECD
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    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (35 S.) , graph. Darst.
    Series Statement: OECD trade policy papers 171
    Keywords: Rechnungswesen ; Rechtsberatung ; Unternehmensdienstleistung ; Dienstleistungshandel ; Handelshemmnisse ; Indexberechnung ; Trade ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Arbeitspapier ; Graue Literatur
    Abstract: This paper presents the services trade restrictiveness indices (STRIs) for the regulated professions of legal and accounting services. The STRIs are composite indices taking values between zero and one, zero representing an open market and one a market completely closed to foreign services providers. The indices are calculated for 40 countries, the 34 OECD members and Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Russia and South Africa. This report presents the first vintage of indicators for legal and accounting services and captures de jure regulations in force in 2013. The STRI supports the view that legal and accounting services are subject to a relatively high level of regulation. Restrictiveness for legal services ranges from 0.11 to 0.73, with an average of 0.31. Accounting and auditing services show an average of 0.3 and STRI values ranging from 0.13 to 1. The results provide useful policy insights, particularly in order to identify priorities for reform at the national and international levels. Notably, in the case of legal and accounting services, easing a few prominent restrictions could result in a significantly more liberal and competitive market environment.
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    DOI: 10.1787/5jxt4nkg9g24-en
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  • 20
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    Services Trade Restrictiveness Index (STRI) : construction, architecture and engineering services (2014)
    Paris : OECD
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (52 S.) , graph. Darst.
    Series Statement: OECD trade policy papers 170
    Keywords: Bauwirtschaft ; Architekturbüro ; Ingenieurbüro ; Unternehmensdienstleistung ; Dienstleistungshandel ; Handelshemmnisse ; Indexberechnung ; Trade ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Arbeitspapier ; Graue Literatur
    Abstract: This paper presents the services trade restrictiveness indices (STRIs) for construction, architecture and engineering services. The STRIs are composite indices taking values between zero and one, zero representing an open market and one a market completely closed to foreign services providers. The indices are calculated for 40 countries, the 34 OECD members and Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Russia and South Africa. This report presents the first vintage of indicators for construction, architecture and engineering services and captures de jure regulations in force in 2013. The results for construction services indicate that the overall level of restrictiveness is relatively low, ranging from 0.05 to 0.32, with an average of 0.16. The more elevated levels of restriction can be largely attributed to general measures affecting all sectors of the economy. The STRI also supports the view that architecture and engineering services are less restrictively regulated than other accredited professional services, notably legal and accounting services. The average value for the STRI among the countries in the sample is 0.22 for architecture services, connoting a relatively low degree of regulatory restrictiveness; the corresponding value is only marginally lower, 0.2, for engineering services. The majority of regulations affecting trade in these sectors concern the movement of people.
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    DOI: 10.1787/5jxt4nnd7g5h-en
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  • 21
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    Small and medium-sized enterprises in global markets : a differential approach for services? (2014)
    Paris : OECD
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (95 S.) , graph. Darst.
    Series Statement: OECD trade policy papers 165
    Keywords: 1985 - 2010 ; Industrie ; Dienstleistungssektor ; Dienstleistungshandel ; KMU ; Globalisierung ; Trade ; Industry and Services ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Arbeitspapier ; Graue Literatur
    Abstract: This study empirically investigates key restrictions to the internationalisation of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in manufacturing and across different types of services. The study explores the extent to which binding constraints faced by SMEs producing goods may differ from small firms operating in services sectors and takes stock of how existing policy initiatives address some of these differences. Our results suggest that while firm size clearly influences the trade performance of SMEs in manufacturing, it is an ambiguous predictor of export performance in the case of small-sized services firms. The findings show that firm size influences the choice of export channel and that small firms rely more on indirect and agglomeration networks. Finally, the results point to a strong degree of firm-level heterogeneity across services activities and enterprise size. It would seem that incorporating sectoral and size heterogeneity into existing policies might be desirable to address key constraints for SMEs.
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    DOI: 10.1787/5jz17jtfkmzt-en
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  • 22
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    Services Trade Restrictiveness Index (STRI) : audio-visual services (2014)
    Paris : OECD
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (38 S.) , graph. Darst.
    Series Statement: OECD trade policy papers 174
    Keywords: Kommunikationsmedien ; Dienstleistungshandel ; Handelshemmnisse ; Indexberechnung ; Science and Technology ; Trade ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Arbeitspapier ; Graue Literatur
    Abstract: This paper presents the services trade restrictiveness indices (STRIs) for motion pictures, television and broadcasting and sound recording. The STRIs are composite indices taking values between zero and one, zero representing an open market and one a market completely closed to foreign services providers. The indices are calculated for 40 countries, the 34 OECD members and Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Russia and South Africa. The STRIs capture de jure restrictions. This report presents the first vintage of indicators for audio-visual services and captures regulations in force in 2013. The scores range between 0.06 and 0.72 for motion pictures, 0.07 to 0.78 for television and broadcasting, and between 0.05 and 0.37 for sound recording. The sample averages are 0.18 for motion pictures, 0.28 for television and broadcasting and 0.16 for sound recording. Limitations on foreign entry, including foreign equity limits contribute to about two thirds of the index values in television and broadcasting. In motion pictures screen quotas contribute to the indices in many of the countries with scores above average. Sound recording, i.e. music, is the most open of the three audio-visual services sectors where limitations on movement of people account for more than 40% of the index value. The paper presents the list of measures included in the indices, the scoring and weighting system for calculating the indices and an analysis of the results.
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    DOI: 10.1787/5jxt4nj4fc22-en
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  • 23
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    Mapping global value chains (2013)
    Paris : OECD
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    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (46 S.) , graph. Darst.
    Series Statement: OECD trade policy papers 159
    Keywords: Agroindustrie ; Chemieindustrie ; Elektronikindustrie ; Kfz-Industrie ; Unternehmensdienstleistung ; Finanzdienstleistung ; Internationale Arbeitsteilung ; Betriebliche Wertschöpfung ; Trade ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Arbeitspapier ; Graue Literatur
    Abstract: World trade and production are increasingly structured around “global value chains” (GVCs). The last few years have witnessed a growing number of case studies describing at the product level how production is internationally fragmented, but there is little evidence at the aggregate level on the prevalence of GVCs. The main objective of this paper is to provide for more and better evidence allowing the examination of countries’ position within international production networks. We propose a number of indicators that give a more accurate picture of the integration and position of countries in GVCs, as well as a more detailed assessment of the value chain in six broad industries: agriculture and food products, chemicals, electronics, motor vehicles, business services and financial services.
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    DOI: 10.1787/5k3v1trgnbr4-en
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  • 24
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    Quantitative evidence on transparency in regional trade agreements (2013)
    Paris : OECD
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    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (32 S.) , graph. Darst.
    Series Statement: OECD trade policy papers 153
    Keywords: Anti-Korruption ; Handelsabkommen ; Handelspräferenzen ; Regionale Wirtschaftsintegration ; Institutionelle Infrastruktur ; Transparenz ; Gravitationsmodell ; Governance-Ansatz ; WTO-Recht ; Welt ; Trade ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Arbeitspapier ; Graue Literatur
    Abstract: What influences the adoption of transparency obligations in trade agreements, and what are its effects? This paper uses a new dataset on transparency provisions in over a hundred regional trade agreements (RTAs) to provide empirical evidence of the political economy determinants of international transparency commitments, as well as the trade impact of negotiating such transparency provisions in RTAs. The study finds that RTAs with deeper mechanisms for enhancing transparency appear to be more strongly trade-promoting than those with shallower commitments on transparency. Concretely, each additional transparency commitment negotiated in an RTA is associated with an increase in bilateral trade flows of more than one percent. Considering that comprehensive RTAs typically contain a dozen of such commitments, countries that opt for a comprehensive transparency agenda can expect to gain substantial increases in intra-regional trade. Moreover, the findings suggest that the readiness of trading partners to adhere to transparency norms is influenced by the quality of home institutions, which is consistent with a view that strengthening governance and regulatory capacities can contribute to a broader diffusion of transparency practices in international trade. Overall, the results of the analysis suggest that transparency should remain an important element of the trade agenda, both at the regional and multilateral levels.
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    DOI: 10.1787/5k450q9v2mg5-en
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  • 25
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    Global value chains and developing country employment : a literature review (2013)
    Paris : OECD
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (23 S.) , graph. Darst.
    Series Statement: OECD trade policy papers 156
    Keywords: Arbeitsmarkt ; Erwerbstätigkeit ; Außenhandel ; Wertschöpfung ; Internationale Arbeitsteilung ; Entwicklungsländer ; Employment ; Development ; Trade ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Arbeitspapier ; Graue Literatur
    Abstract: This paper provides a review of the available literature on global value chains (GVCs) and employment markets in developing countries. Due to the difficulty of observing intra-GVC transactions, there is very little direct empirical work on GVCs and labour markets. However, it is possible to extrapolate from the extensive empirical work already undertaken on firm internationalisation and labour markets to draw inferences as to the likely impacts of GVCs. The review therefore focuses on the labour market impacts of three processes that lie at the core of GVC development: importing, exporting, and foreign direct investment (FDI). It examines their impact on labour demand and wages, and disaggregates the effects whenever possible by skill level. The available empirical evidence strongly suggests that the type of activities undertaken by GVC participants influence labour market outcomes. For instance, many GVC firms are vectors of technological upgrading that in turn increases the relative demand for skilled labour. In these cases, GVC participation is linked to higher relative wages for skilled workers, but also greater wage inequality between skilled and unskilled workers. The evidence on outcomes is more mixed as regards pure processing trade (assembly), however: the limited data available on firms engaged purely in these activities suggests that they do not systematically pay higher wages than domestic firms, which is the reverse of the finding for foreign-owned firms, exporters, and importers in general. The labour market effects of GVCs in developing countries are therefore likely to be broadly positive, but highly case specific. The review therefore concludes with two case studies—electronics in Asia and services in Chile—that demonstrate the complexity of the issues involved, and the role of complementary policies in areas such as human capital development.
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    DOI: 10.1787/5k46j0qw3z7k-en
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  • 26
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    Global production networks and employment : a developing country perspective (2013)
    Paris : OECD
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (30 S.) , graph. Darst.
    Series Statement: OECD trade policy papers 154
    Keywords: Qualifikation ; Erwerbstätigkeit ; Außenhandel ; Geschlecht ; Globalisierung ; Betriebliche Wertschöpfung ; Lohn ; Internationale Arbeitsteilung ; Unternehmensnetzwerk ; Employment ; Trade ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Arbeitspapier ; Graue Literatur
    Abstract: This paper provides evidence of the links between Global Value Chains (GVCs) and labour market outcomes, focusing on developing economies. The literature generally indicates that firms with international linkages—which we use here as a proxy for GVC involvement—tend to employ more workers, pay higher wages, and employ more skilled workers than firms that deal exclusively with the domestic market. Our results are consistent with existing evidence found in developed economies, with internationalised firms tending to hire more workers and pay higher wages in developing economies as well. We also find a positive significant relationship between the number of skilled workers and firms with international linkages but not in certain key economies. However, this comes more from firms who are importers, exporters and foreign affiliates rather than engaging in any of these activities individually. We attribute this finding to the predominance of assembly work performed in many of the economies under consideration, where unskilled workers tend to dominate. Finally, we see a strong, positive association between shares of female workers and firms with international linkages. Engaging in international activity is shown to provide greater opportunities for women to enter the formal labour market.
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    DOI: 10.1787/5k46j0rjq9s8-en
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  • 27
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    Trade policy implications of global value chains : case studies (2013)
    Paris : OECD
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    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (56 S.) , graph. Darst.
    Series Statement: OECD trade policy papers 161
    Keywords: Außenwirtschaftspolitik ; Betriebliche Wertschöpfung ; Internationale Arbeitsteilung ; Effektive Protektion ; Regionale Wirtschaftsintegration ; Kanada ; Trade ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Arbeitspapier ; Graue Literatur ; Fallstudie
    Abstract: Taking global value chains (GVCs) into account has important implications for trade policy. When production is vertically fragmented and trade in intermediate inputs is prevalent, one has to look differently at a certain number of issues. Through case studies, this paper provides new evidence on the incidence on services of tariffs levied on goods (case study 1) and then discusses effective rates of protection in a world of GVCs and what the removal of tariffs on intermediate inputs implies, using the example of Canada (case study 2). To illustrate how trade agreements could be made more relevant for GVCs, the paper further looks at sectoral approaches in trade negotiations through the example of the Information Technology Agreement (case study 3) and finally compares the network of regional trade agreements in force with global production networks (case study 4).
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    DOI: 10.1787/5k3tpt2t0zs1-en
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  • 28
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    FDI Spillovers and their Interrelationships with Trade (2008)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
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    Language: English
    Pages: 41 p. , 21 x 29.7cm
    Series Statement: OECD Trade Policy Working Papers no.80
    Series Statement: OECD Trade Policy Papers no.80
    Keywords: Trade
    Abstract: Foreign direct investment (FDI) represents an increasingly important dimension of international economic integration with global FDI flows growing faster than output over the past two decades. FDI is a particular form of investment, as it transfers knowledge as well as finance that may otherwise be unavailable in the domestic economy. This paper uses firm-level data to identify FDI spillovers across countries, sectors and time. The analysis suggests that knowledge-related spillovers from FDI vary considerably across sectors. Services industries enjoy the strongest productivity-enhancing effects of FDI, particularly through backward linkages. There is no strong evidence of horizontal productivity spillovers at the aggregate level. The results also indicate a significant and positive correlation between the degree of trade openness and output when measuring the impact of foreign presence in the domestic economy. A positive interaction is found between trade liberalisation and productivity spillovers. Thus, trade liberalisation can be seen as an important component of any reform package designed to help countries maximise the benefits of FDI.
    DOI: 10.1787/235843308250
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  • 29
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    The Interaction amongst Trade, Investment and Competition Policies (2008)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
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    Language: English
    Pages: 45 p. , 21 x 29.7cm
    Series Statement: OECD Trade Policy Working Papers no.60
    Series Statement: OECD Trade Policy Papers no.60
    Keywords: Trade
    Abstract: The report focuses on the complementarities between trade, investment and competition policies and analyses how policy coherence can be promoted in these three important areas that shape incentives for firms and individuals to be more productive and for markets to be more competitive. It also deals with the potential inconsistencies or tensions that may arise between trade, investment and competition reforms and how to ease them. It shows that specific policy goals can be achieved while maintaining an open and procompetitive environment. Overall, the analysis highlights the role of governments in providing the right incentives to facilitate the adjustment to the internationalisation of production and the important synergies between policies that can be exploited to promote growth. It is not only the case in contestable markets but also in the context of market failures where pro-competitive policies can address specific distortions and mitigate the adverse effects of reforms. The report includes the results of a survey collecting the experience of policymakers on complementarities between trade, investment and competition policies.
    DOI: 10.1787/241467172568
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  • 30
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    Les interactions entre le chapitre sur l'investissement et le chapitre sur les services dans une sélection d'accords commerciaux régionaux (2007)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Language: French
    Pages: 92 p. , 21 x 29.7cm
    Parallel Title: Parallelausg. The Interaction between Investment and Services Chapters in Selected Regional trade Agreements
    Keywords: Trade
    Abstract: Le présent document expose les résultats des travaux conjoints que le Groupe de travail du Comité des échanges et le Groupe de travail du Comité de l'investissement ont consacrés, au cours de la période 2006-2007, aux interactions entre chapitre sur l'investissement et chapitre sur les services dans un échantillon représentatif composé de 20 accords commerciaux régionaux (ACR). Notre étude comporte trois parties, précédées d'un bref récapitulatif des principaux résultats et d'une synthèse. La première partie analyse les interactions entre chapitre sur l'investissement et chapitre sur les services dans un échantillon représentatif de 20 accords. La deuxième partie analyse leurs effets sur le niveau de protection de l'investissement, tandis que la troisième analyse les effets des interactions et du principe NPF sur le degré de libéralisation.
    DOI: 10.1787/054012674020
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  • 31
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    Modal Estimates of Services Barriers (2007)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
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    Language: English
    Pages: 111 p. , 21 x 29.7cm
    Series Statement: OECD Trade Policy Working Papers no.51
    Series Statement: OECD Trade Policy Papers no.51
    Keywords: Trade
    Abstract: This paper presents improved approaches to measurement of services barriers by using alternative weighting methods and improved econometric specifications; the data include barriers affecting each mode of services supply and additional sector-specific regulatory variables. We provide an illustration of these improvements for banking, insurance, telecom (fixed and mobile), professional (engineering) and distribution services in selected countries in Africa, Asia, Central and Eastern Europe, Latin America and the Middle East. We report sector-specific restrictiveness indices at aggregate and modal levels along with aggregate and modal tax equivalents. We also provide confidence intervals for each estimated tax equivalent to take into account the limitations in the estimation techniques. Indeed these limitations lead us to argue against a strict interpretation of the empirical results and in favor of a more flexible, qualitative interpretation, combined with rank ordering of countries for indicative purposes.
    DOI: 10.1787/148425814101
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  • 32
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    The Interaction between Investment and Services Chapters in Selected Regional trade Agreements (2007)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 87 p. , 21 x 29.7cm
    Series Statement: OECD Trade Policy Working Papers no.55
    Series Statement: OECD Trade Policy Papers no.55
    Parallel Title: Parallelausg. Les interactions entre le chapitre sur l'investissement et le chapitre sur les services dans une sélection d'accords commerciaux régionaux
    Keywords: Trade
    Abstract: This report analyses the interactions between the investment and services chapters of 20 regional trade agreements. It classifies agreements into two broad categories of NAFTA-inspired and GATS-inspired agreements and identifies four major types of interaction between the investment and trade in services chapters. The report then looks at the implications of the services/investment interface for levels of investment protection and liberalisation.
    DOI: 10.1787/054761108710
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  • 33
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    The Impact of Pro-Competitive Reforms on Trade in Developing Countries (2007)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 81 p. , 21 x 29.7cm
    Series Statement: OECD Trade Policy Working Papers no.54
    Series Statement: OECD Trade Policy Papers no.54
    Keywords: Trade
    Abstract: This report proposes an analysis of the mutually reinforcing relationship between trade, investment and competition policies and how together they impact trade in developing countries. An index of pro-competitive reforms is provided for 82 countries over the period 2001-2005. The index synthesises 13 indicators of the policy stance of countries with regard to trade, investment and competition. It is then used in quantitative analysis to determine the impact of barriers to competitive markets on trade. The results shows that there are substantial gains for developing countries in market and regulatory reforms in terms of higher trade flows and higher income per capita. Moreover, the paper further examines pro-competitive reforms in key services sectors and the extent to which trade agreements can promote them through the experience of the WTO telecoms Reference Paper. The analysis highlights that countries achieved a high degree of liberalisation in the telecoms sector and that regulatory principles of the Reference Paper were useful in promoting sound policies under domestic regulatory reforms of the sector.
    DOI: 10.1787/147131508107
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  • 34
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    South-South Trade In Goods (2006)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
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    Language: English
    Pages: 86 p. , 21 x 29.7cm
    Series Statement: OECD Trade Policy Working Papers no.40
    Series Statement: OECD Trade Policy Papers no.40
    Keywords: Trade
    Abstract: The empirical analysis presented in this paper indicates that trade between developing countries (South-South trade) offers a wide scope for specialisation and efficiency gains. The first part of the paper takes an ex-post perspective and employs the gravity methodology to contribute to understanding past trends in world goods trade with a special focus on South-South trade. Analysis shows that far from experiencing a ?death of distance?, South-South trade is still severely...
    DOI: 10.1787/314103237622
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  • 35
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    Analysis of the Economic Impact of Investment Provisions in Regional Trade Agreements (2006)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 65 p. , 21 x 29.7cm
    Series Statement: OECD Trade Policy Working Papers no.36
    Series Statement: OECD Trade Policy Papers no.36
    Keywords: Trade
    Abstract: As countries turn more to regionalism as a means of forwarding co-operation on trade rules and other areas of policymaking, rules on investment are increasingly being incorporated into regional trade agreements (RTAs). We analyse the economic consequences of including investment provisions in trade agreements by creating an index of the extensiveness of investment provisions in RTAs and then using that index in a gravity model framework of trade and investment. The results indicate that investment provisions are positively associated with trade and, to an even greater extent, investment flows. Further, we observe an insignificant effect of bilateral investment treaties on investment flows, suggesting either that substantive investment provisions in RTAs impact trade and FDI flows more profoundly, or that the combination of substantive investment rules and provisions liberalising other parts of the economy jointly impact trade and investment more significantly. The report also includes case studies that confirm that the relationship between investment and other provisions in trade agreements is complex and depends on many factors.
    DOI: 10.1787/322248021805
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  • 36
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    Dynamic Gains from Trade (2006)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
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    Language: English
    Pages: 54 p. , 21 x 29.7cm
    Series Statement: OECD Trade Policy Working Papers no.43
    Series Statement: OECD Trade Policy Papers no.43
    Keywords: Trade
    Abstract: The post world war II era has been characterized by unprecedented growth in the world economy and progressive reduction in barriers to international trade and investment. The objective of this study is to assess to what extent the observed growth and deepening international economic integration are related. It begins by discussing the concept of dynamic gains from trade. Narrowly defined, dynamic gains are traderelated changes in the long-run rate of productivity growth. Although there is no conclusive evidence that...
    DOI: 10.1787/276358887412
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  • 37
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    South-South Services Trade (2006)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 71 p. , 21 x 29.7cm
    Series Statement: OECD Trade Policy Working Papers no.39
    Series Statement: OECD Trade Policy Papers no.39
    Keywords: Trade
    Abstract: This paper contributes to the debate on the development potential of South-South trade in services. It represents the first attempt to identify key features governing the South-South dimension of services. Services trade between developing countries is predominantly regional and may reflect an increasing tendency to incorporate disciplines to liberalise services trade in regional agreements. It is estimated that cross-border South-South exports currently represent around 10 percent of world services exports. The bulk of developing countries? exports is...
    DOI: 10.1787/314720701370
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