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  • 1995-1999  (68)
  • Washington, D.C : The World Bank  (68)
  • Poverty Reduction  (48)
  • Environment
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  • 1
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Access to Land in Rural India (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (56 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Mearns, Robin Access to Land in Rural India
    Keywords: Agrarian Structure ; Agriculture ; Common Property Resource Development ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Countries ; Farm Size ; Farmland ; Land ; Land Administration ; Land Distribution ; Land Markets ; Land Ownership ; Land Records ; Land Reform ; Land Reforms ; Land Registration ; Land Rights ; Land Tenure ; Land Transfers ; Land Use and Policies ; Land and Real Estate Development ; Landlessness ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Municipal Housing and Land ; Political Economy ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Public Access To Land ; Public Land ; Public Sector Management and Reform ; Real Estate Development ; Rural Development ; Rural Development Knowledge and Information Systems ; Rural Land Policies for Poverty Reduction ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Agrarian Structure ; Agriculture ; Common Property Resource Development ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Countries ; Farm Size ; Farmland ; Land ; Land Administration ; Land Distribution ; Land Markets ; Land Ownership ; Land Records ; Land Reform ; Land Reforms ; Land Registration ; Land Rights ; Land Tenure ; Land Transfers ; Land Use and Policies ; Land and Real Estate Development ; Landlessness ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Municipal Housing and Land ; Political Economy ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Public Access To Land ; Public Land ; Public Sector Management and Reform ; Real Estate Development ; Rural Development ; Rural Development Knowledge and Information Systems ; Rural Land Policies for Poverty Reduction ; Rural Poverty Reduction
    Abstract: May 1999 - Access to land is deeply important in rural India, where the incidence of poverty is highly correlated with lack of access to land. The author provides a framework for assessing alternative approaches to improving access to land by India's rural poor. He considers India's record implementing land reform and identifies an approach that includes incremental reforms in public land administration to reduce transaction costs in land markets (thereby facilitating land transfers) and to increase transparency, making information accessible to the public to ensure that socially excluded groups benefit. Reducing constraints on access to land for the rural poor and socially excluded requires five key issues: restrictions on land-lease markets, the fragmentation of holdings, the widespread failure to translate women's legal rights into practice, poor access to (and encroachment on) the commons, and high transaction costs for land transfers. Among guidelines for policy reform the author suggests: -Selectively deregulate land-lease (rental) markets, because rental markets may be important in giving the poor access to land. -Reduce transaction costs in land markets, including both official costs and informal costs (such as bribes to expedite transactions), partly by improving systems for land registration and management of land records. -Critically reassess land administration agencies and find ways to improve incentive structures, to reduce rent-seeking and base promotions on performance. -Promote women's independent land rights through policy measures to increase women's bargaining power within the household and in society generally. -Improve transparency of land administration and public access to information, to reduce rent-seeking by land administration officers and to strengthen poor people's land rights (and knowledge thereof). -Strengthen institutions in civil society to provide the awareness, monitoring, and pressure needed for successful reform and to provide checks and balances on inappropriate uses of state power. -In a companion paper (WPS 2124) the author addresses these issues at the level of a particular state - Orissa, one of India ' s poorest states - in an empirical study, from a transaction costs perspective, of social exclusion and land administration. This paper - a product of the Rural Development Sector Unit, South Asia Region - is part of a larger effort in the region to promote access to land and to foster more demand-driven and socially inclusive institutions in rural development
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  • 2
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Agricultural Extension : Generic Challenges and Some Ingredients for Solutions (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (38 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Feder, Gershon Agricultural Extension
    Keywords: Agricultural ; Agricultural Development ; Agricultural Education ; Agricultural Extension ; Agricultural Knowledge ; Agricultural Knowledge and Information Systems ; Agricultural Production ; Agriculture ; Agriculture ; Extension Services ; Farmers ; Food Production ; Funding ; Government Investments ; Hunger ; Information ; Land ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector ; Products ; Research ; Rural Development ; Rural Development ; Rural Development Knowledge and Information Systems ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Skills ; Agricultural ; Agricultural Development ; Agricultural Education ; Agricultural Extension ; Agricultural Knowledge ; Agricultural Knowledge and Information Systems ; Agricultural Production ; Agriculture ; Agriculture ; Extension Services ; Farmers ; Food Production ; Funding ; Government Investments ; Hunger ; Information ; Land ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector ; Products ; Research ; Rural Development ; Rural Development ; Rural Development Knowledge and Information Systems ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Skills
    Abstract: May 1999 - The agriculture sector must nearly double biological yields on existing farmland to meet food needs, which will double in the next quarter century. A sustainable approach to providing agricultural extension services in developing countries-minimal external inputs, a systems orientation, pluralism, and arrangements that take advantage of the best incentives for farmers and extension service providers-will release the local knowledge, resources, common sense, and organizing ability of rural people. Is agricultural extension in developing countries up to the task of providing the information, ideas, and organization needed to meet food needs? What role should governments play in implementing or facilitating extension services? Roughly 80 percent of the world's extension is publicly funded and delivered by civil servants, providing a range of services to the farming population, commercial producers, and disadvantaged target groups. Budgetary constraints and concerns about performance create pressure to show the payoff on investment in extension and to explore alternatives to publicly providing it. Feder, Willett, and Zijp analyze the challenges facing policymakers who must decide what role governments should play in implementing or facilitating extension services. Focusing on developing country experience, they identify generic challenges that make it difficult to organize extension: ° The magnitude of the task. ° Dependence on wider policy and other agency functions. ° Problems in identifying the cause and effect needed to enable accountability and to get political support and funding. ° Liability for public service functions beyond the transfer of agricultural knowledge and information. ° Fiscal sustainability. ° Inadequate interaction with knowledge generators. Feder, Willett, and Zijp show how various extension approaches were developed in attempts to overcome the challenges of extension: ° Improving extension management. ° Decentralizing. ° Focusing on single commodities. ° Providing fee-for-service public extension services. ° Establishing institutional pluralism. ° Empowering people by using participatory approaches. ° Using appropriate media. Each of the approaches has weaknesses and strengths, and in their analysis the authors identify the ingredients that show promise. Rural people know when something is relevant and effective. The aspects of agricultural extension services that tend to be inherently low cost and build reciprocal, mutually trusting relationships are those most likely to produce commitment, accountability, political support, fiscal sustainability, and the kinds of effective interaction that generate knowledge. This paper-a joint product of Rural Development, Development Research Group, and the Rural Development Department-is part of a larger effort in the Bank to identify institutional and policy reforms needed to promote sustainable and equitable rural development. The authors may be contacted at gfederworldbank.org, awillett@worldbank.org, or wzijp@worldbank.org
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  • 3
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    The Slippery Slope : Explaining the Increase in Extreme Poverty in Urban Brazil, 1976 96 (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (78 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Barros, de Paes Ricardo The Slippery Slope
    Keywords: Economic Growth ; Economic Theory and Research ; Extreme Poverty ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Formal Safety Nets ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Composition ; Household Income ; Household Per Capita Income ; Income ; Income Distribution ; Income Inequality ; Inequality ; Inequality ; Labor Markets ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Measures ; Poor ; Poor Households ; Population Policies ; Poverty Incidence ; Poverty Indices ; Poverty Line ; Poverty Lines ; Poverty Measures ; Poverty Reduction ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Rural ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Protections and Labor ; Unemployment ; Economic Growth ; Economic Theory and Research ; Extreme Poverty ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Formal Safety Nets ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Composition ; Household Income ; Household Per Capita Income ; Income ; Income Distribution ; Income Inequality ; Inequality ; Inequality ; Labor Markets ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Measures ; Poor ; Poor Households ; Population Policies ; Poverty Incidence ; Poverty Indices ; Poverty Line ; Poverty Lines ; Poverty Measures ; Poverty Reduction ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Rural ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Protections and Labor ; Unemployment
    Abstract: October 1999 - During the turbulent years 1976-96, aggregate data for Brazil appear to show only small changes in mean income, inequality, and incidence of poverty - suggesting little change in the distribution of income. But a small group of urban households - excluded from formal labor markets and safety nets - was trapped in indigence. Based on welfare measured in terms of income alone, the poorest part of urban Brazil has experienced two lost decades. Despite tremendous macroeconomic instability in Brazil, the country's distributions of urban income in 1976 and 1996 appear, at first glance, deceptively similar. Mean household income per capita was stagnant, with minute accumulated growth (4.3 percent) over the two decades. The Gini coefficient hovered just above 0.59 in both years, and the incidence of poverty (relative to a poverty line of R
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  • 4
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Do School Facilities Matter? : The Case of the Peruvian Social Fund (FONCODES) (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (40 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Schady, Norbert Do School Facilities Matter?
    Keywords: Access To Schooling ; Attendance Rate ; Attendance Rates ; Classrooms ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Disability ; Education ; Education ; Education for All ; Educational Infrastructure ; Educational Inputs ; Educational Outcomes ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Gender ; Gender and Education ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Illiteracy ; Investments In Education ; Population Policies ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Reduction ; Primary Education ; Public School ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Sanitation ; School ; School Attendance ; School Breakfast ; School Facilities ; School Level ; Schoolchildren ; Social Protections and Labor ; Tertiary Education ; Textbooks ; Values ; Access To Schooling ; Attendance Rate ; Attendance Rates ; Classrooms ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Disability ; Education ; Education ; Education for All ; Educational Infrastructure ; Educational Inputs ; Educational Outcomes ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Gender ; Gender and Education ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Illiteracy ; Investments In Education ; Population Policies ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Reduction ; Primary Education ; Public School ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Sanitation ; School ; School Attendance ; School Breakfast ; School Facilities ; School Level ; Schoolchildren ; Social Protections and Labor ; Tertiary Education ; Textbooks ; Values
    Abstract: A revised version was published as The Allocation and Impact of Social Funds: Spending on School Infrastructure in Peru (with Christina Paxson). World Bank Economic Review 16 (2): 297-319, 2002. - Education projects of the Peruvian Social Fund (FONCODES) have reached poor districts and, to the extent they live in those districts, poor households. FONCODES has had a positive effect on school attendance rates for young children, but not on the likelihood that children will be at an appropriate school level for their age. Since its creation in 1991, the Peruvian Social Fund (FONCODES) has spent about US
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  • 5
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    The Green Revolution and the Productivity Paradox : Evidence from the Indian Punjab (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (34 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Murgai, Rinku The Green Revolution and the Productivity Paradox
    Keywords: Agricultural Production ; Agricultural Research ; Agriculture ; Agriculture ; Cotton ; Crop ; Cropping ; Cropping Systems ; Crops ; Crops and Crop Management Systems ; Development Research ; Drought Management ; Economic Growth ; Economic Theory and Research ; Farmers ; Green Revolution ; Hybrid Seed ; Infrastructure ; Investment ; Irrigation and Drainage ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Maize ; Markets ; Poverty Reduction ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Rice ; Seed Varieties ; Social Protections and Labor ; Technology ; Technology Adoption ; Water Resources ; Wheat ; Agricultural Production ; Agricultural Research ; Agriculture ; Agriculture ; Cotton ; Crop ; Cropping ; Cropping Systems ; Crops ; Crops and Crop Management Systems ; Development Research ; Drought Management ; Economic Growth ; Economic Theory and Research ; Farmers ; Green Revolution ; Hybrid Seed ; Infrastructure ; Investment ; Irrigation and Drainage ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Maize ; Markets ; Poverty Reduction ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Rice ; Seed Varieties ; Social Protections and Labor ; Technology ; Technology Adoption ; Water Resources ; Wheat
    Abstract: In assessing new technologies, policy-makers should allow time between the adoption of the technologies and the realization of productivity gains attributable to them. Productivity growth was much lower than might be expected during the green revolution in the Indian Punjab but improved as learning processes took effect and resource management and the use of inputs became more efficient.Murgai provides district-level estimates of the contribution of technical change to agricultural output growth in the Indian Punjab from 1960 to 1993. Contrary to widespread belief, productivity growth in the Punjab was surprisingly low during the green revolution (in the mid-1960s), when modern hybrid seed varieties were being adopted. It improved later, after adoption of the new varieties was essentially complete. Murgai proposes three reasons for this pattern: · The standard measure of total factor productivity overstates the contribution of capital to output growth at the expense of the productivity residual. High-yielding varieties introduced in the 1960s helped spur output growth by making crops responsive to water and fertilizer, which not only allowed but indeed encouraged far greater use of capital inputs. This increase in the elasticity of the output response to capital inputs is incorporated into the index of factor accumulation and therefore excluded from the measure of total factor productivity growth. As a result, the contribution of technical change to growth in Punjab's agriculture during the green revolution is probably underestimated. · The overstatement of the capital contribution during the green revolution is exacerbated by indivisibilities in capital inputs. · Productivity growth did not come from the adoption of modern varieties alone. Improved resource management and public investment in infrastructure also helped improve productivity. This paper - a product of Rural Development, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to study the determinants and impact of technology adoption and productivity growth in agriculture. The study was funded by the Bank's Research Support Budget under the research project Productivity and Sustainability of Irrigated Systems in South Asia (RPO 680-34). The author may be contacted at rmurgaiworldbank.org
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  • 6
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    A Review of the Role and Impact of Export Processing Zones (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (114 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Madani, Dorsati A Review of the Role and Impact of Export Processing Zones
    Keywords: Banks and Banking Reform ; Capital Goods ; Debt Markets ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Environment ; Environment ; Environmental ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Environmental Issues ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Imports ; Incentives ; Income ; International Economics & Trade ; Investment ; Investments ; Knowledge ; Labor ; Labor Markets ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Markets ; Policy Instruments ; Private Sector Development ; Production ; Public Sector Development ; Revenue ; Social Protections and Labor ; Subsidies ; Technology ; Trade ; Trade Policy ; Unemployment ; Wages ; Banks and Banking Reform ; Capital Goods ; Debt Markets ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Environment ; Environment ; Environmental ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Environmental Issues ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Imports ; Incentives ; Income ; International Economics & Trade ; Investment ; Investments ; Knowledge ; Labor ; Labor Markets ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Markets ; Policy Instruments ; Private Sector Development ; Production ; Public Sector Development ; Revenue ; Social Protections and Labor ; Subsidies ; Technology ; Trade ; Trade Policy ; Unemployment ; Wages
    Abstract: As instruments for encouraging economic development, export processing zones have only limited usefulness. A better policy choice is general liberalization of a country's economy. - Traditional export processing zones are fenced-in industrial estates specializing in manufacturing for exports. Modern ones have more flexible rules, such as permitting more liberal domestic sales. They provide a free-trade and liberal regulatory environment for the firms involved. Their primary goals: to provide foreign exchange earnings by promoting nontraditional exports, to provide jobs and create income, and to attract foreign direct investment and attendant technology transfer and knowledge spillover. Domestic, international, or joint venture firms operating in export processing zones typically benefit from reduced red tape, flexible labor laws, generous long-term tax holidays and concessions, above-average communications services and infrastructure (and often subsidized utilities and rental rates), and unlimited duty-free imports of raw and intermediate inputs and capital goods needed for production. In this review of experience, Madani concludes that export processing zones have limited applications; the better policy choice is to liberalize a country's entire economy. Under certain conditions - including appropriate setup and good management - export processing zones can play a dynamic role in a country's development, but only as a transitional step in an integrated movement toward general liberalization of the economy (with revisions as national economic conditions change). The World Bank, writes Madani, should be cautious about supporting export processing zone projects, doing so only on a case-by-case basis, only with expert guidance, and only as part of a general reform package. It should not support isolated export processing zone projects in unreformed or postreform economies (in the last case they might encourage backsliding on trade policy). In general, if a policy is good for the economy as a whole, it is likely to be good for an export processing zone. Sound policy will encourage: · Sound, stable monetary and fiscal policies, clear private property and investment laws, and a business-friendly economic environment. · Moderate, simplified (but not overfriendly) corporate tax schedules, and generally liberal tariffs and other trade taxes. · Private development and management of export processing zones and their infrastructure and unsubsidized utilities. · Labor laws that are business-friendly but do not abuse workers' safety and labor rights. · A better understanding of the impact of industrial refuse on the quality of air, soil, water, and human health. This paper - a product of Trade, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to understand the impact of trade policy and trade policy tools on development. The author may be contacted at dmadaniworldbank.org
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  • 7
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Opportunities for Improving Environmental Compliance in Mexico (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (22 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Dasgupta, Susmita Opportunities for Improving Environmental Compliance in Mexico
    Keywords: Economics ; Economies ; Emissions ; Environment ; Environmental ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Environmental Information ; Environmental Management ; Environmental Performance ; Environmental Quality ; Environmental Regulations ; Information ; Metals ; Monitoring ; Options ; Policy Makers ; Polluters ; Pollution ; Pollution Control ; Regulation ; Regulations ; Technology ; Economics ; Economies ; Emissions ; Environment ; Environmental ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Environmental Information ; Environmental Management ; Environmental Performance ; Environmental Quality ; Environmental Regulations ; Information ; Metals ; Monitoring ; Options ; Policy Makers ; Polluters ; Pollution ; Pollution Control ; Regulation ; Regulations ; Technology
    Abstract: One of the main reasons for noncompliant firms' poor environmental performance is the information gap on Mexico's environmental policy. Pollution control could be improved through systematically fuller communication targeted to noncompliant firms - including more environmental education, especially of senior managers. - Survey evidence from Mexico reveals large observed differences in pollution from factories in the same industry, or the same area, or operating under the same regulatory regime. Many factories have adopted significant measures for pollution control and are in compliance with environmental regulations, but some have made little or no such effort. For lack of data, systematic research on the reasons behind such variations in plant-level environmental performance (especially on how impediments to pollution control affect plant behavior) is rare, even in industrial societies. Drawing on a recent plant-level survey of Mexican factories, Dasgupta identifies a number of performance variables characteristic of compliant and noncompliant plants, as well as factors that non-compliant plants perceive to be obstacles to pollution control. Noncompliant firms made less effort than compliant firms to change materials used, to change production processes, or to install end-of-pipe treatment equipment. They had significantly fewer programs to train their general workers in environmental responsibilities. They lagged behind in environmental training, waste management, and transportation training. They received less technical training, especially about the environment, environmental policy and administration, and clean technology and audits. Responses about obstacles to better environmental performance included scarcity of training resources, government bureaucracy, high interest rates, and Mexico's lack of an environmental protection culture. Respondents said that senior managers did not emphasize the environment, assigned more priority to economic considerations, and were not trained in the subject. There were too few suitable programs, training was not recognized, and workers were not interested in the subject. Most important, however, little information was available about Mexico's environmental policy. These findings suggest the importance of technical assistance - especially training and information. In Mexico, the information gap on policy is a major problem. Mexican environmental agencies should invest more in technical assistance and environmental training targeted to noncompliant enterprises. Environmental education, especially of senior managers, could significantly improve pollution control. Maintaining close contact with noncompliant firms, designing programs targeted to them, and pursuing them systemically should increase their responsiveness to regulations. This paper - a product of Infrastructure and Environment, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to understand the determinants of environmental performance in developing countries. The study was funded by the Bank's Research Support Budget under the research project The Economics of Industrial Pollution Control in Developing Countries (RPO 680-20). The author may be contacted at sdasguptaworldbank.org
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  • 8
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    True World Income Distribution, 1988 and 1993 : First Calculations, Based on Household Surveys Alone (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (70 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Milanovic, Branko True World Income Distribution, 1988 and 1993
    Keywords: Consumption ; Economic Theory ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Growth Models ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Household Surveys ; Income ; Income ; Income Differences ; Income Distribution ; Income Distribution Data ; Income Inequality ; Increasing Inequality ; Inequality ; Inequality ; Macroeconomics ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Mean Incomes ; Median Voter ; Median Voter Hypothesis ; Personal Income ; Political Economy ; Poverty Diagnostics ; Poverty Impact Evaluation ; Poverty Reduction ; Power Parity ; Private Sector Development ; Rising Inequality ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Protections and Labor ; Consumption ; Economic Theory ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Growth Models ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Household Surveys ; Income ; Income ; Income Differences ; Income Distribution ; Income Distribution Data ; Income Inequality ; Increasing Inequality ; Inequality ; Inequality ; Macroeconomics ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Mean Incomes ; Median Voter ; Median Voter Hypothesis ; Personal Income ; Political Economy ; Poverty Diagnostics ; Poverty Impact Evaluation ; Poverty Reduction ; Power Parity ; Private Sector Development ; Rising Inequality ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Protections and Labor
    Abstract: Inequality in world income is very high, according to household surveys, more because of differences between mean country incomes than because of inequality within countries. World inequality increased between 1988 and 1993, driven by slower growth in rural per capita incomes in populous Asian countries (Bangladesh, China, and India) than in large, rich OECD countries, and by increasing income differences between urban China on the one hand and rural China and rural India on the other. - Milanovic derives the distribution of individuals' income or expenditures for two years, 1988 and 1993. His is the first paper to calculate world distribution for individuals based entirely on data from household surveys. The data, from 91 countries, are adjusted for differences in purchasing power parity between the countries. Measured by the Gini index, inequality increased from an already high 63 in 1988 to 66 in 1993. This increase was driven more by rising differences in mean incomes between countries than by rising inequalities within countries. Contributing most to the inequality were rising urban-rural differences in China and the slower growth of rural purchasing-power-adjusted incomes in South Asia than in several large developed market economies. This paper - a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to study inequality and poverty in the world. Also published in The Economic Journal, January 2002 pp. 51-92 The author may be contacted at bmilanovicworldbank.org
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  • 9
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Malaria and Growth (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (30 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: McCarthy, Desmond F Malaria and Growth
    Keywords: Anopheles Mosquitoes ; Climate Change ; Communicable Diseases ; Disability ; Disease Control and Prevention ; Diseases ; Early Child and Children's Health ; Effects ; Environment ; Females ; Health ; Health Indicators ; Health Monitoring and Evaluation ; Health Service Management and Delivery ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Illnesses ; Impact Of Malaria ; Life ; Malaria ; Malaria ; Malaria Incidence ; Malaria Morbidity ; Malaria Mortality ; Medical Treatment ; Morbidity And Mortality ; Nutrition ; Parasitic Disease ; Population Policies ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty and Health ; Public Health ; Tuberculosis ; Vaccine ; Anopheles Mosquitoes ; Climate Change ; Communicable Diseases ; Disability ; Disease Control and Prevention ; Diseases ; Early Child and Children's Health ; Effects ; Environment ; Females ; Health ; Health Indicators ; Health Monitoring and Evaluation ; Health Service Management and Delivery ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Illnesses ; Impact Of Malaria ; Life ; Malaria ; Malaria ; Malaria Incidence ; Malaria Morbidity ; Malaria Mortality ; Medical Treatment ; Morbidity And Mortality ; Nutrition ; Parasitic Disease ; Population Policies ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty and Health ; Public Health ; Tuberculosis ; Vaccine
    Abstract: March 2000 - Malaria ranks among the foremost health problems in tropical countries. Allowing for reverse causation, malaria is estimated to reduce GDP per capita growth rates by at least a quarter percentage point a year in many Sub-Saharan countries. McCarthy, Wolf, and Wu explore the two-sided link between malaria morbidity and GDP per capita growth. Climate significantly affects cross-country differences in malaria morbidity. Tropical location is not destiny, however: greater access to rural health care and greater income equality are associated with lower malaria morbidity. But the interpretation of this link is ambiguous: does greater income equality allow for improved anti-malaria efforts, or does malaria itself increase income inequality? Allowing for two-sided causation, McCarthy, Wolf, and Wu find a significant negative causal effect running from malaria morbidity to the growth rate of GDP per capita. In about a quarter of their sample countries, malaria is estimated to reduce GDP per capita growth by at least 0.25 percentage point a year. This paper - a product of Public Economics, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to study the health-environment-economy nexus. This study was funded by the Bank's Research Support Budget under the research project Health, Environment, and the Economy (RPO 683-73). The authors may be contacted at fmccarthyworldbank.org and holger.wolf@mailexcite.com
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  • 10
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    The Buenos Aires Water Concession (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (72 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Alcázar, Lorena The Buenos Aires Water Concession
    Keywords: Debt Markets ; Decision Making ; Economics ; Emerging Markets ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Incentives ; Income ; Industry ; Information ; Information Asymmetries ; Infrastructure Economics ; Infrastructure Economics and Finance ; Interest ; Investment ; Marginal Cost ; Outcomes ; Perverse Incentives ; Prices ; Private Sector Development ; Productivity ; Regulation ; Revenues ; Supply ; Taking ; Tariffs ; Town Water Supply and Sanitation ; Urban Water Supply and Sanitation ; Water ; Water Conservation ; Water Resources ; Water Supply and Sanitation ; Water Supply and Sanitation Governance and Institutions ; Water and Industry ; Welfare Effects ; Debt Markets ; Decision Making ; Economics ; Emerging Markets ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Incentives ; Income ; Industry ; Information ; Information Asymmetries ; Infrastructure Economics ; Infrastructure Economics and Finance ; Interest ; Investment ; Marginal Cost ; Outcomes ; Perverse Incentives ; Prices ; Private Sector Development ; Productivity ; Regulation ; Revenues ; Supply ; Taking ; Tariffs ; Town Water Supply and Sanitation ; Urban Water Supply and Sanitation ; Water ; Water Conservation ; Water Resources ; Water Supply and Sanitation ; Water Supply and Sanitation Governance and Institutions ; Water and Industry ; Welfare Effects
    Abstract: April 2000 - Transparent, rule-based decisionmaking is important to maintaining public trust in regulated infrastructure. The Buenos Aires water and sanitation concession led to remarkable improvements in delivery and coverage of services and to lower prices for consumers. But a poor information base, lack of transparency in regulatory decisions, and the ad hoc nature of executive branch interventions make it difficult to reassure consumers that their welfare is being protected and that the concession is sustainable. The signing of a concession contract for the Buenos Aires water and sanitation system in December 1992 attracted worldwide attention and caused considerable controversy in Argentina. It was one of the world's largest concessions, but the case was also interesting for other reasons. The concession was implemented rapidly, in contrast with slow implementation of privatization in Santiago, for example. And reform generated major improvements in the sector, including wider coverage, better service, more efficient company operations, and reduced waste. Moreover, the winning bid brought an immediate 26.9 percent reduction in water system tariffs. Consumers benefited from the system's expansion and from the immediate drop in real prices, which was only partly reversed by subsequent changes in tariffs and access charges. And these improvements would probably not have occurred under public administration of the system. Still, as Alcázar, Abdala, and Shirley show, information asymmetries, perverse incentives, and weak regulatory institutions could threaten the concession's sustainability. Opportunities for the company to act opportunistically - and the regulator, arbitrarily - exist because of politicized regulation, a poor information base, serious flaws in the concession contract, a lumpy and ad hoc tariff system, and a general lack of transparency in the regulatory process. Because of these circumstances, public confidence in the process has eroded. The Buenos Aires concession shows how important transparent, rule-based decisionmaking is to maintaining public trust in regulated infrastructure. This paper - a product of Regulation and Competition Policy, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to analyze institutional issues in regulated infrastructure. The study was funded by the Bank's Research Support Budget under the research project Institutions, Politics, and Contracts: Private Sector Participation in Urban Water Supply (RPO 681-87). Mary Shirley may be contacted at mshirleyworldbank.org
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  • 11
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    Investment in Natural Gas Pipelines in the Southern Cone of Latin America (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (36 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Jadresic, Alejandro Investment in Natural Gas Pipelines in the Southern Cone of Latin America
    Keywords: Coal ; Coal Mines ; Electricity ; Electricity Demand ; Electricity System ; Energy ; Energy ; Energy Consumption ; Energy Markets ; Energy Needs ; Energy Production and Transportation ; Energy and Environment ; Environment ; Environment and Energy Efficiency ; Industry ; Infrastructure Economics and Finance ; Infrastructure Regulation ; Investment ; Investments ; Natural Gas ; Natural Gas Infrastructure ; Natural Gas Pipelines ; Oil ; Oil and Gas Industry ; Pipeline ; Pipeline Projects ; Power ; Power Generation ; Power Generators ; Water Resources ; Water and Industry ; Coal ; Coal Mines ; Electricity ; Electricity Demand ; Electricity System ; Energy ; Energy ; Energy Consumption ; Energy Markets ; Energy Needs ; Energy Production and Transportation ; Energy and Environment ; Environment ; Environment and Energy Efficiency ; Industry ; Infrastructure Economics and Finance ; Infrastructure Regulation ; Investment ; Investments ; Natural Gas ; Natural Gas Infrastructure ; Natural Gas Pipelines ; Oil ; Oil and Gas Industry ; Pipeline ; Pipeline Projects ; Power ; Power Generation ; Power Generators ; Water Resources ; Water and Industry
    Abstract: April 2000 - The natural gas pipelines between Argentina and Chile are large-scale investments in competitive environments. Jadresic, a former minister of energy in Chile, argues that a competitive energy sector and free entry were important policy initiatives to spur the cross-border investments that have benefited Chile's energy sector and environment. Increasing demand for clean energy sources is expanding investment in natural gas infrastructure around the world. Many international projects involve pipelines connecting energy markets in two or more countries. A key feature of investment taking place in Latin America is the convergence of gas and electricity markets. Many projects are being developed to supply gas to new power generation plants needed to meet electricity demand. Construction of a pipeline over the Andes mountains to supply gas from Argentina to energy markets in central Chile was an idea long unfulfilled for political, economic, and technical reasons. Great changes have now taken place in a very short time. Jadresic discusses both the achievements and the challenges to be faced by pipeline developers and Chile's energy sector. He details the benefits of the cooperative effort to consumers in terms of lower energy prices, higher environmental standards, and a more reliable energy system. The experience in Latin America's Southern Cone shows how technological innovation, economic deregulation, and regional integration make it possible to build major international gas pipeline projects within a competitive framework and without direct state involvement. This paper - a product of Private Participation in Infrastructure, Private Sector Advisory Services Department - is part of a larger effort in the department to analyze and disseminate the principles of, and good practice for, promoting competition in infrastructure. The author may be contacted at jadresiccreuna.cl
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  • 12
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    Externalities and Production Efficiency (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (50 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Eskel, S. Gunnar Externalities and Production Efficiency
    Keywords: Commodity Taxes ; Economic Welfare ; Economics ; Efficiency ; Emission Standards ; Emission Tax ; Emissions ; Environment ; Environment ; Environmental ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Environmental Management ; Environmental Protection ; Externalities ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Marginal Costs ; Polluters ; Pollution ; Pollution Abatement ; Pollution Management and Control ; Production ; Revenue ; Taxation ; Taxation and Subsidies ; Taxes ; Commodity Taxes ; Economic Welfare ; Economics ; Efficiency ; Emission Standards ; Emission Tax ; Emissions ; Environment ; Environment ; Environmental ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Environmental Management ; Environmental Protection ; Externalities ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Marginal Costs ; Polluters ; Pollution ; Pollution Abatement ; Pollution Management and Control ; Production ; Revenue ; Taxation ; Taxation and Subsidies ; Taxes
    Abstract: April 2000 - Environmental improvements should be sought from different polluters (public or private, producer or consumer, rich or poor) at the same cost, regardless of the nature of the polluting activity. Under a plausible structure of monitoring costs, emissions standards play a central role. Eskeland brings together two of government's primary challenges: environmental protection and taxation to generate revenues. If negative externalities can be reduced not only by changes in consumption patterns but also by making each activity cleaner (abatement efforts), how shall inducements to various approaches be combined? If negative externalities are caused by agents as different as consumers, producers, and government, how does optimal policy combine inducements to reduce pollution? Intuitively it seems right to tax emissions neutrally, based on marginal damages - no matter which activity pollutes or whether the polluter is rich or poor, consumer or producer, private or public. Eskeland provides a theoretical basis for such simplicity. Three assumptions are critical to his analysis: · Returns to scale do not influence the traditional problem of revenue generation. · Consumers have equal access to pollution abatement opportunities (but he also relaxes this assumption). · Planners can differentiate policy instruments (emission taxes or abatement standards) by polluting good, and by whether the polluter is a consumer, producer, or government, but they cannot differentiate such instruments (or commodity taxes) by personal characteristics or make them nonlinear in individual emissions. Among Eskeland's findings and conclusions: Abatement efforts and consumption adjustments at all stages are optimally stimulated by a uniform emission tax levied simply where emissions occur. It simplifies things that optimal abatement is independent of whether the car is used by government, firms, or households - for weddings or for work. It also simplifies implementation that the stimulus to abatement at one stage (say, the factory) is independent of whether it yields emission reductions from the factory or from others (say, from car owners who buy the factory's products). Finally, ministers of finance and of the environment should coordinate efforts, but they need not engage in each other's business. The minister of environment need not know which commodities are elastic in demand and thus would bear a low commodity tax. The finance minister need not know which commodities or agents pollute or who pays emission taxes. This paper - a product of Public Economics, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to establish principles for public intervention. The author may be contacted at geskelandworldbank.org
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  • 13
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    Environmental Policy and Time Consistency : Emissions Taxes and Emissions Trading (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (48 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Kennedy, W. Peter Environmental Policy and Time Consistency
    Keywords: Aggregate Emissions ; Damage Function ; Economics ; Efficiency ; Emission Standards ; Emission Taxes ; Emissions ; Environment ; Environmental ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Environmental Policy ; Forest Management ; ICT Policy and Strategies ; Incentives ; Industry ; Information and Communication Technologies ; Policies ; Policy Instruments ; Pollution ; Pollution Control ; Pollution Management and Control ; Pollution Reduction ; Production ; Technological Change ; Technology ; Technology Adoption ; Technology Industry ; Aggregate Emissions ; Damage Function ; Economics ; Efficiency ; Emission Standards ; Emission Taxes ; Emissions ; Environment ; Environmental ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Environmental Policy ; Forest Management ; ICT Policy and Strategies ; Incentives ; Industry ; Information and Communication Technologies ; Policies ; Policy Instruments ; Pollution ; Pollution Control ; Pollution Management and Control ; Pollution Reduction ; Production ; Technological Change ; Technology ; Technology Adoption ; Technology Industry
    Abstract: May 2000 - As instruments for controlling pollution, how do emissions taxes and emissions trading compare in terms of the incentives they create to adopt cleaner technologies? Emissions taxes may have a slight advantage over emissions trading. Kennedy and Laplante examine policy problems related to the use of emissions taxes and emissions trading, two market-based instruments for controlling pollution by getting regulated firms to adopt cleaner technologies. By attaching an explicit price to emissions, these instruments give firms an incentive to continually reduce their volume of emissions. Command-and-control emissions standards create incentives to adopt cleaner technologies only up to the point where the standards are no longer binding (at which point the shadow price on emissions falls to zero). But the ongoing incentives created by market-based instruments are not necessarily right, either. Time-consistency constraints on the setting of these instruments limit the regulator's ability to set policies that lead to efficiency in adopting technology options. After examining the time-consistency properties of a Pigouvian emissions tax and of emissions trading, Kennedy and Laplante find that: · If damage is linear, efficiency in adopting technologies involves either universal adoption of the new technology or universal retention of the old technology, depending on the cost of adoption. The first-best tax policy and the first-best permit-supply policy are both time-consistent under these conditions. · If damage is strictly convex, efficiency may require partial adoption of the new technology. In this case, the first-best tax policy is not time-consistent and the tax rate must be adjusted after adoption has taken place (ratcheting). Ratcheting will induce an efficient equilibrium if there is a very large number of firms. If there are relatively few firms, ratcheting creates too many incentives to adopt the new technology. · The first-best supply policy is time-consistent if there is a very large number of firms. If there are relatively few firms, the first-best supply policy may not be time-consistent, and the regulator must ratchet the supply of permits. With this policy, there are not enough incentives for firms to adopt the new technology. The results do not strongly favor one policy instrument over the other, but if the point of an emissions trading program is to increase technological efficiency, it is necessary to continually adjust the supply of permits in response to technological change, even when damage is linear. This continual adjustment is not needed for an emissions tax when damage is linear, which may give emissions taxes an advantage over emissions trading. This paper - a product of Infrastructure and Environment, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to study the economics of pollution control. Copies of the paper are available free from the World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433. Benoît Laplante may be contacted at blaplanteworldbank.org
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  • 14
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    Reducing Carbon Dioxide Emissions through Joint Implementation of Projects (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (32 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Martin, Will Reducing Carbon Dioxide Emissions through Joint Implementation of Projects
    Keywords: Abatement Options ; Activities ; Approach ; Carbon Dioxide ; Carbon Dioxide Emissions ; Carbon Emissions ; Carbon Policy and Trading ; Certified Project Activity ; Emission ; Emission Reduction ; Energy ; Energy ; Energy Production and Transportation ; Energy Products ; Energy Sources ; Energy Use ; Energy and Environment ; Environment ; Environment and Energy Efficiency ; Fuel ; Fuels ; Global Greenhouse Gas ; Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions ; Greenhouse Gases ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Markets and Market Access ; Price ; Prices ; Public Sector Development ; Transport ; Transport and Environment ; Abatement Options ; Activities ; Approach ; Carbon Dioxide ; Carbon Dioxide Emissions ; Carbon Emissions ; Carbon Policy and Trading ; Certified Project Activity ; Emission ; Emission Reduction ; Energy ; Energy ; Energy Production and Transportation ; Energy Products ; Energy Sources ; Energy Use ; Energy and Environment ; Environment ; Environment and Energy Efficiency ; Fuel ; Fuels ; Global Greenhouse Gas ; Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions ; Greenhouse Gases ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Markets and Market Access ; Price ; Prices ; Public Sector Development ; Transport ; Transport and Environment
    Abstract: June 2000 - Most proposals for joint implementation of energy projects emphasize installing more technically efficient capital equipment to allow reduced energy use for any given mix of input and output. But increases in energy efficiency are likely to have second-round effects. Reducing energy demand, for example, will reduce the market price of energy and stimulate energy use, partially offsetting the initial reduction in demand. These effects are likely to be substantially larger in the long run, reducing the magnitude of these offsets. Efficient reduction of carbon dioxide emissions requires coordination of international efforts. Approaches proposed include carbon taxes, emission quotas, and jointly implemented energy projects. To reduce emissions efficiently requires equalizing the marginal costs of reduction between countries. The apparently large differentials between the costs of reducing emissions in industrial and developing countries implies a great potential for lowering the costs of reducing emissions by focusing on projects in developing countries. Most proposals for joint implementation of energy projects emphasize installing more technically efficient capital equipment, to allow reductions in energy use for any given mix of input and output. But such increases in efficiency are likely to have potentially important second-round impacts: · Lowering the relative effective price of specific energy products. · Lowering the price of energy relative to other inputs. · Lowering the price of energy-intensive products relative to other products. Martin explores the consequences of these second-round impacts and suggests ways to deal with them in practical joint-implementation projects. For example, the direct impact of reducing the effective price of a fuel is to increase consumption of that fuel. Generally, substitution effects also reduce the use of other fuels, and the emissions generated from them. If the fuel whose efficiency is being improved is already the least emission-intensive, the combined impact of these price effects is most likely to be favorable. If the fuel whose efficiency is being improved is initially the most emission-intensive, the combined impact of these price changes is less likely to be favorable and may even increase emissions. In the example Martin uses, increase in coal use efficiency was completely ineffective in reducing emissions because it resulted in emission-intensive coal being substituted for less polluting oil and gas. This paper - a product of Trade, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to understand key links between trade and the environment. The author may be contacted at wmartin1worldbank.org
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  • 15
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    How Mexico's Financial Crisis Affected Income Distribution (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (38 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Salinas, Angel How Mexico's Financial Crisis Affected Income Distribution
    Keywords: Bank ; Calculations ; Contribution ; Current Account ; Current Income ; Earnings ; Economic Theory and Research ; Education ; Emerging Markets ; Equity ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Crisis ; Financial Literacy ; Household Income ; Income ; Income ; Income Groups ; Income Sources ; Inequality ; Information ; Investment ; Labor Markets ; Labor Policies ; Low-Income ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Population ; Poverty Impact Evaluation ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Salaries ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Severe Financial Crisis ; Social Protections and Labor ; Wages ; Bank ; Calculations ; Contribution ; Current Account ; Current Income ; Earnings ; Economic Theory and Research ; Education ; Emerging Markets ; Equity ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Crisis ; Financial Literacy ; Household Income ; Income ; Income ; Income Groups ; Income Sources ; Inequality ; Information ; Investment ; Labor Markets ; Labor Policies ; Low-Income ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Population ; Poverty Impact Evaluation ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Salaries ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Severe Financial Crisis ; Social Protections and Labor ; Wages
    Abstract: July 2000 - After Mexico's financial crisis in 1994, the distribution of income and labor earnings improved. But financial income and rising labor earnings in higher-income brackets are growing sources of inequality in Mexico. After Mexico's financial crisis in 1994, the distribution of income and labor earnings improved. Did inequality increase during the recession, as one would expect, since the rich have more ways to protect their assets than the poor do? After all, labor is poor people's only asset (the labor-hoarding hypothesis). In principle, one could argue that the richest deciles experienced severe capital losses because of the crisis in 1994-96, and were hurt proportionately more than the poor were. But the facts don't support this hypothesis. As a share of total income, both monetary income (other than wages and salaries) and financial income increased during that period, especially in urban areas. Financial income is a growing source of inequality in Mexico. Mexico's economy had a strong performance in 1997. The aggregate growth rate was about 7 percent, real investment grew 24 percent and exports 17 percent, industrial production increased 9.7 percent, and growth in civil construction (which makes intensive use of less skilled labor) was close to 11 percent. Given those figures, it is not surprising that the distribution of income and labor earnings improved, but the magnitude and quickness of the recovery prompted a close inspection of the mechanisms responsible for it. Lopez-Acevedo and Salinas analyze the decline in income inequality after the crisis, examine income sources that affect the level of inequality, and investigate the forces that drive inequality in Mexico. They find that in 1997 the crisis had hurt the income share of the top decile of the population mainly by reducing its share of labor earnings. Especially affected were highly skilled workers in financial services and nontradables. Results from 1998 suggest that the labor earnings of those workers recovered and in fact increased. Indeed, labor earnings are a growing source of income inequality. This paper-a product of the Economic Policy Sector Unit and Mexico Country Office, Latin America and the Caribbean Region-is part of the Bank's study of earnings inequality after Mexico's economic and educational reforms. The authors may be contacted at gacevedoworldbank.org or asalinas@worldbank.org
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  • 16
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    Public Choices between Lifesaving Programs : How Important Are Lives Saved? (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (78 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Cropper, Maureen Public Choices between Lifesaving Programs
    Keywords: Air Quality and Clean Air ; Breast Cancer ; Brown Issues and Health ; Children ; Disease Control and Prevention ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Environmental Health ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Health ; Health Care ; Health Education ; Health Monitoring and Evaluation ; Health Services ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Implementation ; Industrial Pollution ; Industry ; Insurance and Risk Mitigation ; Internet ; Knowledge ; Ozone ; Population Policies ; Public Health ; Risks ; Screening ; Smokers ; Smoking ; Strategy ; Water Pollution ; Water Resources ; Water and Industry ; Workplace ; Air Quality and Clean Air ; Breast Cancer ; Brown Issues and Health ; Children ; Disease Control and Prevention ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Environmental Health ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Health ; Health Care ; Health Education ; Health Monitoring and Evaluation ; Health Services ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Implementation ; Industrial Pollution ; Industry ; Insurance and Risk Mitigation ; Internet ; Knowledge ; Ozone ; Population Policies ; Public Health ; Risks ; Screening ; Smokers ; Smoking ; Strategy ; Water Pollution ; Water Resources ; Water and Industry ; Workplace
    Abstract: August 1995 - Do funding priorities for health and safety policies reflect irrational fears? the disaster of the month - rather than address more fundamental problems? A thousand people were surveyed to gauge popular feelings about funding choices between environmental and public health programs. In developing and industrial countries alike, there is concern that health and safety policy may respond to irrational fears - to the disaster of the month - rather than address more fundamental problems. In the United States, for example, some policymakers say the public worries about trivial risks while ignoring larger ones and that funding priorities reflect this view. Many public health programs with a low cost per life saved are underfunded, for example, while many environmental regulations with a high cost per life saved are issued each year. Does the existing allocation of resources reflect people's preoccupation with the qualitative aspects of risks, to the exclusion of quantitative factors (lives saved)? Or can observed differences in the cost per life saved of environmental and public health programs be explained by the way the two sets of programs are funded? Cropper and Subramanian examine the preferences of U.S. citizens for health and safety programs. They confronted a random sample of 1,000 U.S. adults with choices between environmental health and public health programs, to see which they would choose. The authors then examined what factors (qualitative and quantitative) seem to influence these choices. Respondents were asked about pairs of programs, among them: smoking education or industrial pollution control programs, industrial pollution control or pneumonia vaccine programs, radon eradication or a program to ban smoking in the workplace, and radon eradication or programs to ban pesticides. The survey results, they feel, have implications beyond the United States. They find that, while qualitative aspects of the life-saving programs are statistically significant in explaining people's choices among them, lives saved matter, too. Indeed, for the median respondent in the survey, the rate of substitution between most qualitative risk characteristics and lives saved is inelastic. But for a sizable minority of respondents, choice among programs appears to be insensitive to lives saved. The interesting question for public policy is what role the latter group plays in the regulatory process. This paper - a joint product of the Environment, Infrastructure, and Agriculture Division, Policy Research Department, and the Environment and Natural Resources Division, Asia Technical Department - is part of a larger effort in the Bank to see what can be learned about efficient environmental policy by examining the U.S. experience with environmental regulation. The authors may be contacted at mcropperworldbank.org or usubramanian@worldbank.org
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  • 17
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    Africa's Growth Tragedy : A Retrospective, 1960 - 89 (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (44 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Levine, Ross Africa's Growth Tragedy
    Keywords: Black Market ; Business Cycle ; Country Regressions ; Currencies and Exchange Rates ; Economic Growth ; Economic Theory and Research ; Educational Attainment ; Exchange Rate ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Development ; Financial Sector ; Financial Systems ; Growth ; Growth Performance ; Growth Rate ; Growth Rates ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Inequality ; Long-Run Growth ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Nutrition ; Per Capita Income ; Policy Change ; Policy Research ; Political Instability ; Political Stability ; Poor Countries ; Poor Growth ; Poverty Reduction ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Black Market ; Business Cycle ; Country Regressions ; Currencies and Exchange Rates ; Economic Growth ; Economic Theory and Research ; Educational Attainment ; Exchange Rate ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Development ; Financial Sector ; Financial Systems ; Growth ; Growth Performance ; Growth Rate ; Growth Rates ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Inequality ; Long-Run Growth ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Nutrition ; Per Capita Income ; Policy Change ; Policy Research ; Political Instability ; Political Stability ; Poor Countries ; Poor Growth ; Poverty Reduction ; Pro-Poor Growth
    Abstract: August 1995 - Problems associated with Sub-Saharan Africa's slow growth are low school attainment, political instability, poorly developed financial systems, large black-market exchange-rate premia, large government deficits, and inadequate infrastructure. Improving policies alone boosts growth substantially. But if neighboring countries adopt a policy change together, the effects on growth are more than double what they would have been if one country had acted alone. Africa's economic history since 1960 fits the classical definition of tragedy: potential unfulfilled, with disastrous consequences. Easterly and Levine use one methodology - cross-country regressions - to account for Sub-Saharan Africa's growth performance over the past 30 years and to suggest policies to promote growth over the next 30 years. They statistically quantify the relationship between long-run growth and a wider array of factors than any previous study. They consider such standard variables as initial income to capture convergence effects, schooling, political stability, and indicators of monetary, fiscal, trade, exchange rate, and financial sector policies. They also consider such new measures as infrastructure development, cultural diversity, and economic spillovers from neighbors' growth. Their analysis: ° Improves substantially on past attempts to account for the growth experience of Sub-Saharan African countries. ° Shows that low school attainment, political instability, poorly developed financial systems, large black-market exchange-rate premia, large government deficits, and inadequate infrastructure are associated with slow growth. ° Finds that Africa's ethnic diversity tends to slow growth and reduce the likelihood of adopting good policies. ° Identifies spillovers of growth performance between neighboring countries. The spillover effects of growth have implications for policy strategy. Improving policies alone boosts growth substantially, but if neighboring countries act together, the effects on growth are much greater. Specifically, the results suggest that the effect of neighbors' adopting a policy change is 2.2 times greater than if a single country acted alone. This paper - a joint product of the Macroeconomics and Growth Division and the Finance and Private Sector Development Division, Policy Research Department - is part of a larger effort in the department to understand the link between policies and growth. The study was funded by the Bank's Research Support Budget under the research project Patterns of Growth (RPO 678-26)
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  • 18
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    Subjective Economic Welfare (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (43 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Ravallion, Martin Subjective Economic Welfare
    Keywords: Bank ; Calculation ; Consumer ; Consumers ; Demand ; Demands ; Economic Theory and Research ; Family Allowances ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Household Incomes ; Income ; Incomes ; Inequality ; Inflation ; Information ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Money ; Pensioner ; Population Policies ; Poverty Diagnostics ; Poverty Lines ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Rate ; Poverty Reduction ; Property ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Spending ; Unemployment ; Welfare ; Bank ; Calculation ; Consumer ; Consumers ; Demand ; Demands ; Economic Theory and Research ; Family Allowances ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Household Incomes ; Income ; Incomes ; Inequality ; Inflation ; Information ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Money ; Pensioner ; Population Policies ; Poverty Diagnostics ; Poverty Lines ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Rate ; Poverty Reduction ; Property ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Spending ; Unemployment ; Welfare
    Abstract: April 1999 - As conventionally measured, current household income relative to a poverty line can only partially explain how Russian adults perceive their economic welfare. Other factors include past incomes, individual incomes, household consumption, current unemployment, risk of unemployment, health status, education, and relative income in the area of residence. Paradoxically, when economists analyze a policy's impact on welfare they typically assume that people are the best judges of their own welfare, yet resist directly asking them if they are better off. Early ideas of utility were explicitly subjective, but modern economists generally ignore people's expressed views about their own welfare. Even using a broad set of conventional socioeconomic data may not reflect well people's subjective perceptions of their poverty. Ravallion and Lokshin examine the determinants of subjective economic welfare in Russia, including its relationship to conventional objective indicators. For data on subjective perceptions, they use survey responses in which respondents rate their level of welfare from poor to rich on a nine-point ladder. As an objective indicator of economic welfare, they use the most common poverty indicator in Russia today, in which household incomes are deflated by household-specific poverty lines. They find that Russian adults with higher family income per equivalent adult are less likely to place themselves on the lowest rungs of the subjective ladder and more likely to put themselves on the upper rungs. But current household income does not explain well self-reported assessments of whether someone is poor or rich. Expanding the set of variables to include incomes at different dates, expenditures, educational attainment, health status, employment, and average income in the area of residence doubles explanatory power. Healthier and better educated adults with jobs perceive themselves to be better off, controlling for income. The unemployed view their welfare as lower, even with full income replacement. Individual income matters independent of per capita household income. Relative income also matters. Living in a richer area lowers perceived economic welfare, controlling for income and other factors. This paper-a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group-is part of a larger effort in the group to better understand the relationship between objective and subjective economic welfare. The study was funded by the Bank's Research Support Budget under the research project Policies for Poor Areas (RPO 681-39). The authors may be contacted at mravallionworldbank.org or mlokshin@worldbank.org
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  • 19
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    Developing Country Agriculture and the New Trade Agenda (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (31 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Hoekman, Bernard Developing Country Agriculture and the New Trade Agenda
    Keywords: Agribusiness ; Agricultural Production ; Agricultural Protection ; Agriculture ; Competition ; Debt Markets ; Economic Development ; Economic Theory and Research ; Economics ; Emerging Markets ; Environment ; Environmental ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Environmental Regulations ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Free Trade ; Income ; International Economics & Trade ; Investment ; Labor Policies ; Law and Development ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Markets ; Policies ; Private Sector Development ; Public Sector Development ; Quotas ; Resources ; Rural Communities ; Social Protections and Labor ; Standards ; Subsidies ; Tariffs ; Taxation ; Trade ; Trade Law ; Trade Policy ; Welfare Gains ; World Trade Organization ; Agribusiness ; Agricultural Production ; Agricultural Protection ; Agriculture ; Competition ; Debt Markets ; Economic Development ; Economic Theory and Research ; Economics ; Emerging Markets ; Environment ; Environmental ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Environmental Regulations ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Free Trade ; Income ; International Economics & Trade ; Investment ; Labor Policies ; Law and Development ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Markets ; Policies ; Private Sector Development ; Public Sector Development ; Quotas ; Resources ; Rural Communities ; Social Protections and Labor ; Standards ; Subsidies ; Tariffs ; Taxation ; Trade ; Trade Law ; Trade Policy ; Welfare Gains ; World Trade Organization
    Abstract: May 1999 - In the new round of World Trade Organization talks expected in late 1999, negotiations about access to agricultural and services markets should be given top priority, but new trade agenda issues should also be discussed. Including new trade agenda issues would increase market discipline's role in the allocation of resources in agriculture and would encourage nonagricultural groups with interests in the new issues to take part in the round, counterbalancing forces favoring agricultural protection. A new round of World Trade Organization negotiations on agriculture, services, and perhaps other issues is expected in late 1999. To what extent should those negotiations include new trade agenda items aimed at ensuring that domestic regulatory policies do not discriminate against foreign suppliers? Hoekman and Anderson argue that negotiations about market access should be given priority, as the potential welfare gains from liberalizing access to agricultural (and services) markets are still huge, but new issues should be included too. Including new trade agenda issues would increase the role of market discipline in the allocation of resources in agriculture and would encourage nonagricultural groups with interests in the new issues to take part in the round, counterbalancing forces in favor of agricultural protection. They also argue, however, that rule-making efforts to accommodate the new issues should be de-linked from negotiations about access to agricultural markets, because the issues affect activity in all sectors. This paper-a product of the Development Research Group-is part of a larger effort in the group to analyze options and priorities for developing countries in the run-up to a new round of WTO negotiations. Bernard Hoekman may be contacted at bhoekmanworldbank.org or kanderson@economics.adelaide.edu.au
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  • 20
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    Hungary's Integration into European Union Markets : Production and Trade Restructuring (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (33 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Kaminski, Bartlomiej Hungary's Integration into European Union Markets
    Keywords: Access to Markets ; Agribusiness and Markets ; Agriculture ; Capital ; Central Planning ; Comparative Advantage ; Competitive Markets ; Competitiveness ; Debt Markets ; Economic Relations ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Exports ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Free Trade ; GDP ; General System Of Preferences ; Goods ; Industry ; International Economics & Trade ; Investment ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Markets ; Markets and Market Access ; Private Sector Development ; Production ; Public Sector Development ; Rural Development ; Shares ; Trade ; Trade Barriers ; Trade Policy ; Transition Economies ; Transition Economy ; Value ; Water Resources ; Water and Industry ; Access to Markets ; Agribusiness and Markets ; Agriculture ; Capital ; Central Planning ; Comparative Advantage ; Competitive Markets ; Competitiveness ; Debt Markets ; Economic Relations ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Exports ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Free Trade ; GDP ; General System Of Preferences ; Goods ; Industry ; International Economics & Trade ; Investment ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Markets ; Markets and Market Access ; Private Sector Development ; Production ; Public Sector Development ; Rural Development ; Shares ; Trade ; Trade Barriers ; Trade Policy ; Transition Economies ; Transition Economy ; Value ; Water Resources ; Water and Industry
    Abstract: June 1999 - Can Hungarian firms cope with competitive pressures and market forces within the European Union market (a criterion for joining)? The empirical evidence suggests that Hungary can withstand such competitive pressures without suppressing the real incomes of Hungary's citizens. Hungary has achieved impressive results in reorienting both its production and trade. Between 1989 and 1992, as the former CMEA markets collapsed and Hungary liberalized imports and the exchange rate regime, exports to the European Union (EU) expanded, with manufactured exports redirected largely to Western (mostly EU) markets. During this first phase of expansion, characterized by a dramatic reorientation and explosion of trade, the value of Hungary's exports increased 84 percent. In 1993 export expansion lost steam and EU-oriented exports fell 12 percent. In a second phase of expansion (in 1994-97), driven by restructured and rapidly changing export offers, exports again registered strong performance, their value increasing 132 percent. There was a dramatic shift from an export basket dominated by resource-intensive, low-value-added products to one driven by manufactures, with a rapidly accelerating growth of engineering products. Machinery and transport equipment rose from 12 percent of exports to the EU in 1989 to more than 50 percent in 1997. The shift from natural resource and unskilled-labor-intensive products to technology- and capital-intensive products in EU-oriented exports suggests the potential for integration higher in the value-added spectrum. More stringent EU environmental regulations will affect a relatively low, and falling, share of Hungary's exports. The Hungarian share of environmentally dirty products imported by the EU has increased, but these products have not been trendsetters among Hungarian exports, their share in exports falling from 26 percent in 1989 to 16 percent in 1996. The rapid pace of Hungary's turnaround seems to reflect the emergence of second-generation firms, mostly foreign-owned. Foreign-owned firms tend to be more export-oriented. Hungary has been one of the more successful transition economies because its economy was receptive to foreign direct investment from the outset. Between 1990 and 1997, Hungary absorbed roughly half of all foreign capital invested in Central Europe. This paper - a product of Trade, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to study regional integration. The author may be contacted at bkaminskiworldbank.org
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  • 21
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    Protecting the Poor from Macroeconomic Shocks (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (28 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Ravallion, Martin Protecting the Poor from Macroeconomic Shocks
    Keywords: Banks and Banking Reform ; Debt Markets ; Drought ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Fiscal Deficits ; Household Income ; Individual Welfare ; Labor Demand ; Labor Policies ; Living Standards ; Macroeconomic Crisis ; Macroeconomic Shocks ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poor ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Public Transfers ; Recessions ; Resource Allocation ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Safety Net ; Safety Nets ; Safety Nets and Transfers ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Shock ; Social Protections and Labor ; Structural Reforms ; Unemployment ; Wage Earners ; Welfare ; Banks and Banking Reform ; Debt Markets ; Drought ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Fiscal Deficits ; Household Income ; Individual Welfare ; Labor Demand ; Labor Policies ; Living Standards ; Macroeconomic Crisis ; Macroeconomic Shocks ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poor ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Public Transfers ; Recessions ; Resource Allocation ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Safety Net ; Safety Nets ; Safety Nets and Transfers ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Shock ; Social Protections and Labor ; Structural Reforms ; Unemployment ; Wage Earners ; Welfare
    Abstract: August 1999 - To minimize the harmful impact on poor people of macroeconomic shocks, sound policies for dealing with crises - and an adequate public safety net - should be in place before a crisis starts. Many developing countries faced macroeconomic shocks in the 1980s and 1990s. The impact of the shocks on welfare depended on the nature of the shock, on initial household and community conditions, and on policy responses. To avoid severe and lasting losses to poor and vulnerable groups, governments and civil society need to be prepared for a flexible response well ahead of the crisis. A key component of a flexibly responsive system is an effective permanent safety net, which will typically combine a workfare program with targeted transfers and credit. Once a crisis has happened, several things should be done: ° Macroeconomic policies should aim to achieve stabilization goals at the least cost to the poor. Typically, a temporary reduction in aggregate demand is inevitable but as soon as a sustainable external balance has been reached and inflationary pressures have been contained, macroeconomic policy should be eased (interest rates reduced and efficient public spending restored, to help offset the worst effects of the recession on the poor). A fiscal stimulus directed at labor-intensive activities (such as building rural roads) can combine the benefits of growth with those of income support for poor groups, for example. ° Key areas of public spending should be protected, especially investments in health care, education, rural infrastructure, urban sanitation, and microfinance. ° Efforts should be made to preserve the social fabric and build social capital. ° Sound information should be generated on the welfare impacts of the crisis. This paper - a joint product of the Poverty Group, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network, and Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the Bank to inform policy choices aimed at minimizing the social costs of macroeconomic shocks. The authors may be contacted at fferreiraecon.puc-rio.br, gprennushi@worldbank.org, or mravallion@worldbank.org
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  • 22
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    Seeking Votes : The Political Economy of Expenditures by the Peruvian Social Fund (FONCODES), 1991-95 (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (36 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Schady, Norbert Seeking Votes
    Keywords: Allocation ; Business Cycles ; Business Environment ; Business in Development ; Competitiveness and Competition Policy ; Data On Expenditures ; Data Requirements ; Debt Markets ; Discretionary Funds ; Distribution Of Expenditures ; E-Government ; Econometric Techniques ; Expenditures ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Governance ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Outcomes ; Parliamentary Government ; Politicians ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Public Expenditure ; Public Expenditures ; Public Sector Development ; Public Sector Expenditure Analysis and Management ; Social Expenditures ; Social Funds ; Social Policy ; Social Programs ; Social Services ; Stated Objectives ; Structural Adjustment ; Allocation ; Business Cycles ; Business Environment ; Business in Development ; Competitiveness and Competition Policy ; Data On Expenditures ; Data Requirements ; Debt Markets ; Discretionary Funds ; Distribution Of Expenditures ; E-Government ; Econometric Techniques ; Expenditures ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Governance ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Outcomes ; Parliamentary Government ; Politicians ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Public Expenditure ; Public Expenditures ; Public Sector Development ; Public Sector Expenditure Analysis and Management ; Social Expenditures ; Social Funds ; Social Policy ; Social Programs ; Social Services ; Stated Objectives ; Structural Adjustment
    Abstract: A revised version was published as The Political Economy of Expenditures by the Peruvian Social Fund (FONCODES), 1991-95. American Political Science Review 94 (2, June): 289-304, 2000. - As the literature on political influences on the allocation of discretionary funds predicts, spending by the Peruvian Social Fund, FONCODES, increased significantly before elections. FONCODES projects were also directed at provinces where the marginal political impact of expenditures was likely to be greatest. President Alberto Fujimori created the Peruvian Social Fund (FONCODES) in 1991 with the stated objectives of generating employment, helping to alleviate poverty, and improving access to social services. Schady uses province-level data on monthly expenditures, socioeconomic indicators, and electoral outcomes to analyze political influences on the timing and geographic distribution of FONCODES expenditures between 1991 and 1995. He finds that: ° FONCODES expenditures increased significantly before elections. ° FONCODES projects were directed at poor provinces, as well as provinces in which the marginal political impact of expenditures was likely to be greatest. The results are robust to many specifications and controls. The Peruvian data thus support predictions made in the literature on political business cycles as well as the literature on political influences on the allocation of discretionary funds. This paper - a product of the Poverty Division, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network - is part of a larger effort in the network to understand the functioning and impact of social funds
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  • 23
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    Who Avoids and Who Escapes from Poverty during the Transition? : Evidence from Polish Panel Data, 1993 96 (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (60 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Okrasa, Wlodzimierz Who Avoids and Who Escapes from Poverty during the Transition?
    Keywords: Chronic Poverty ; Employment Income ; Farm Self-Employment ; Food Consumption ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Budget ; Household Income ; Household Welfare ; Human Capital ; Human Development ; Idiosyncratic Shocks ; Income ; Income Inequality ; Measures ; Poor ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Line ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction Strategy ; Rural ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Unemployment ; Chronic Poverty ; Employment Income ; Farm Self-Employment ; Food Consumption ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Budget ; Household Income ; Household Welfare ; Human Capital ; Human Development ; Idiosyncratic Shocks ; Income ; Income Inequality ; Measures ; Poor ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Line ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction Strategy ; Rural ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Unemployment
    Abstract: November 1999 - There is a tendency toward chronic, long-term poverty in Poland. Most at risk: larger households, farm households, and households dependent on social welfare. Least at risk: households of employees or the self-employed, educated households, households headed by pensioners, households that are part of kinship networks, and households with liquid assets, durables, or access to financial resources. Among those who missed out on the benefits of the first phase of economic prosperity, children are overrepresented. Okrasa uses four-year panel data from Poland's Household Budget Survey to explore the distinction between transitory and long-term poverty, a crucial distinction in designing and evaluating poverty reduction strategies. Okrasa analyzes household welfare trajectories during the period 1993-96, to identify the long-term poor and to determine how relevant household asset endowments are as determinants of household poverty and vulnerability over time. He concludes that the chronically poor constitute a distinct and separate segment of the population, with low turnover. Among specific observations about factors that affect Poland's long-term poverty: · Variables in human capital significantly affected the pattern of repeated poverty and vulnerability. Larger households tended to experience poverty and vulnerability, mostly because they contained more children or other dependents. Households with elderly members and those headed by older people, by women rather than men, and by educated people of either gender were least likely to be poor. Poverty was unaffected by the presence of a disabled person in the household. · Households with liquid assets or durables, or with access to financial resources, were less likely to be poor and vulnerable. Households appeared to take advantage of credit and loans to maintain their current level of consumption rather than to augment their stock of assets. · Households that were part of kinship networks were less at risk of falling into chronic poverty or vulnerability. · Households headed by pensioners were least in danger of impoverishment. Those most in danger were farm households (including mixed households headed by workers with an agricultural holding) and households heavily dependent on social welfare. · Households of employees were better off than self-employed households when income-based measures of poverty were used but not when consumption-based measures were used. Neither group was significantly vulnerable. This paper - a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to study the dynamics of poverty and the effectiveness of the safety net. The author may be contacted at wokrasaworldbank.org
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  • 24
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    Valuing Water for Chinese Industries : A Marginal Productivity Assessment (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (28 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Lall, Somik Valuing Water for Chinese Industries
    Keywords: Economic Theory and Research ; Energy ; Energy Production and Transportation ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Groundwater ; Industrial Sector ; Industrial Use ; Industrial Water ; Industrial Water Demand ; Industrial Water Use ; Industry ; Industry ; Infrastructure Economics and Finance ; Infrastructure Regulation ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Municipal Wastewater ; Pollution ; Production Process ; Research ; River Basins ; Rivers ; Town Water Supply and Sanitation ; Water ; Water Conservation ; Water Conservation ; Water Recycling ; Water Resources ; Water Shortage ; Water Shortages ; Water Supply ; Water Supply and Sanitation ; Water Supply and Sanitation Governance and Institutions ; Water Supply and Systems ; Water Treatment ; Water Use ; Water and Industry ; Economic Theory and Research ; Energy ; Energy Production and Transportation ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Groundwater ; Industrial Sector ; Industrial Use ; Industrial Water ; Industrial Water Demand ; Industrial Water Use ; Industry ; Industry ; Infrastructure Economics and Finance ; Infrastructure Regulation ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Municipal Wastewater ; Pollution ; Production Process ; Research ; River Basins ; Rivers ; Town Water Supply and Sanitation ; Water ; Water Conservation ; Water Conservation ; Water Recycling ; Water Resources ; Water Shortage ; Water Shortages ; Water Supply ; Water Supply and Sanitation ; Water Supply and Sanitation Governance and Institutions ; Water Supply and Systems ; Water Treatment ; Water Use ; Water and Industry
    Abstract: The marginal productivity of water used for industry varies among sectors in China, but there is great potential for the Chinese government to save water by raising water prices to industry, to encourage water conservation. - Using plant-level data on more than 1,000 Chinese industrial plants, Wang and Lall estimate a production function treating capital, labor, water, and raw material as inputs to industrial production. They then estimate the marginal productivity of water based on the estimated production function. Using the marginal productivity approach to valuing water for industrial use, they also derive a model and estimates for the price elasticity of water use by Chinese industries. Previous studies used water demand functions and total cost functions to estimate firms' willingness to pay for water use. They find that the marginal productivity of water varies among sectors in China, with an industry average of 2.5 yuan per cubic meter of water. The average price elasticity of industrial water demand is about -1.0, suggesting a great potential for the Chinese government to use pricing policies to encourage water conservation in the industrial sector. Increasing water prices would reduce water use substantially. This paper - a product of Infrastructure and Environment, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to understand the economics of industrial pollution control in developing countries
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  • 25
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    Willingness to Pay for Air Quality Improvements in Sofia, Bulgaria (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (32 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Wang, Hua Willingness to Pay for Air Quality Improvements in Sofia, Bulgaria
    Keywords: Air Pollution ; Air Quality and Clean Air ; Biodiversity ; Choice ; Contingent Valuation ; Debt Markets ; Distribution ; E-Business ; Econometric Analyses ; Econometric Analysis ; Econometric Models ; Economic Theory and Research ; Economic Value ; Elasticity ; Emerging Markets ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Exogenous Variables ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Future Studies ; Goods ; Income ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Markets and Market Access ; Payments ; Positive Effects ; Prices ; Private Sector Development ; Public Good ; Utility ; Utility Function ; Variables ; Air Pollution ; Air Quality and Clean Air ; Biodiversity ; Choice ; Contingent Valuation ; Debt Markets ; Distribution ; E-Business ; Econometric Analyses ; Econometric Analysis ; Econometric Models ; Economic Theory and Research ; Economic Value ; Elasticity ; Emerging Markets ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Exogenous Variables ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Future Studies ; Goods ; Income ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Markets and Market Access ; Payments ; Positive Effects ; Prices ; Private Sector Development ; Public Good ; Utility ; Utility Function ; Variables
    Abstract: January 2000 - People in Sofia are willing to pay 4.2 percent of their income or more for a program to improve air quality. Through a survey, Wang and Whittington study willingness to pay for improvements in air quality in Sofia, Bulgaria. Using a stochastic payment card approach - asking respondents the likelihood that they would agree to pay a series of prices - they estimate the distribution of willingness to pay various prices. They find that people in Sofia are willing to pay up to about 4.2 percent of their income for a program to improve air quality. The income elasticity of willingness to pay for air quality improvements is about 27 percent. For comparison, they also used the referendum contingent valuation approach. Results from that approach yielded a higher estimate of willingness to pay. This paper - a product of Infrastructure and Environment, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to understand the economics of pollution control in developing countries. Copies of the paper are available from Hua Wang may be contacted at hwang1worldbank.org
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  • 26
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    Output Fluctuations in Latin America : What Explains the Recent Slowdown? (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (68 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Herrera, Santiago Output Fluctuations in Latin America
    Keywords: Accounting ; Bond ; Bonds ; Business Cycles ; Business Cycles and Stabilization Policies ; Capital Flows ; Capital Markets ; Currencies and Exchange Rates ; Debt Markets ; Domestic Interest Rates ; Economic Stabilization ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Exchange ; External Debt ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Gross Domestic Product ; Interest Rates ; International Development ; International Interest ; Investment and Investment Climate ; Macroeconomic Management ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Real Exchange Rate ; Real Exchange Rates ; Real Interest ; Real Interest Rate ; Real Interest Rates ; Share ; Sovereign Debt ; Accounting ; Bond ; Bonds ; Business Cycles ; Business Cycles and Stabilization Policies ; Capital Flows ; Capital Markets ; Currencies and Exchange Rates ; Debt Markets ; Domestic Interest Rates ; Economic Stabilization ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Exchange ; External Debt ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Gross Domestic Product ; Interest Rates ; International Development ; International Interest ; Investment and Investment Climate ; Macroeconomic Management ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Real Exchange Rate ; Real Exchange Rates ; Real Interest ; Real Interest Rate ; Real Interest Rates ; Share ; Sovereign Debt
    Abstract: May 2000 - For the period 1992-98, domestic factors explain most output variability in Latin America. However, external factors account for about 60 percent of the 1998-99 slowdown - perhaps in part because external variables were more volatile during this period, but mainly because domestic variables - real interest rates and real exchange rates - were more stable in these two years. Herrera, Perry, and Quintero explain Latin America's growth slowdown in 1998-99. To do so, they use two complementary methodologies. The first aims at determining how much of the slowdown can be explained by specific external factors: the terms of trade, international interest rates, spreads on external debt, capital flows, and climatological factors (El Niño). Using quarterly GDP data for the eight largest countries in the region, the authors estimate a dynamic panel showing that 50 - 60 percent of the slowdown was due to these external factors. The second approach allows for effects on output by some endogenous variables, such as domestic real interest rates and real exchange rates. Using monthly industrial production data, the authors estimate country-specific generalized vector autoregressions (GVAR) for the largest countries. They find that during the sample period (1992-98) output volatility is mostly associated with shocks to domestic factors, but the slowdown in the subperiod 1998-99 is explained more than 60 percent by shocks to the external factors. This paper - a product of the Economic Policy Sector Unit and the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Sector Unit, Latin America and Caribbean Regional Office - is part of a larger effort to understand output fluctuations and growth in the region. The authors may be contacted at gperryworldbank.org or nquintero@worldbank.org
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  • 27
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    Endogenous Enforcement and Effectiveness of China's Pollution Levy System (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (32 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Wang, Hua Endogenous Enforcement and Effectiveness of China's Pollution Levy System
    Keywords: Abatement ; Air Pollution ; Economic Development ; Economists ; Emissions ; Environment ; Environmental ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Environmental Performance ; Environmental Protection ; Environmental Quality ; Green Issues ; Income ; Industry ; Labor ; Labor Force ; Pollution ; Pollution Charges ; Poverty ; Production ; Public Sector Development ; Standards ; Sulfur Dioxide ; Water ; Water Pollution ; Water Resources ; Water and Industry ; Abatement ; Air Pollution ; Economic Development ; Economists ; Emissions ; Environment ; Environmental ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Environmental Performance ; Environmental Protection ; Environmental Quality ; Green Issues ; Income ; Industry ; Labor ; Labor Force ; Pollution ; Pollution Charges ; Poverty ; Production ; Public Sector Development ; Standards ; Sulfur Dioxide ; Water ; Water Pollution ; Water Resources ; Water and Industry
    Abstract: May 2000 - How well air and water pollution regulation is implemented depends very much on both the level of economic development and actual environmental quality. Pollution pricing is closer to the dictates of environmental economics than China's formal regulatory statutes would suggest - and there is considerable scope for using economic instruments to reduce China's industrial pollution problems. Wang and Wheeler investigate two aspects of China's pollution levy system, which was first implemented about 20 years ago. First, they analyze what determines differences in enforcement of the pollution levy in various urban areas. They find that collection of the otherwise uniform pollution levy is sensitive to differences in economic development and environmental quality. Air and water pollution levies are higher in areas that are heavily polluted. Second, they analyze the impact of pollution charges on industry's environmental performance, in terms of the pollution intensity of process production and the degree of end-of-pipe abatement for both water pollution and air pollution. Econometric analysis shows that plants respond strongly to the levy by either abating air pollution in the production process or providing end-of-pipe treatment for water pollution. This paper - a product of Infrastructure and Environment, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to study environmental regulation in developing countries. The authors may be contacted at hwang1worldbank.org or dwheeler1@worldbank.org
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  • 28
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    Pollution Charges, Community Pressure, and Abatement Cost of Industrial Pollution in China (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (32 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Wang, Hua Pollution Charges, Community Pressure, and Abatement Cost of Industrial Pollution in China
    Keywords: Abatement ; Brown Issues and Health ; Demand ; Empirical Analysis ; Empirical Studies ; Environment ; Environmental ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Environmental Protection ; Environmental Sciences ; Green Issues ; Incentives ; Industrial Water ; Industry ; Marginal Abatement ; Pollution ; Pollution Abatement ; Pollution Charges ; Pollution Control ; Pollution Discharge ; Prices ; Public Sector Development ; Regulation ; Standards ; Water ; Water Pollution ; Water Resources ; Water and Industry ; Abatement ; Brown Issues and Health ; Demand ; Empirical Analysis ; Empirical Studies ; Environment ; Environmental ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Environmental Protection ; Environmental Sciences ; Green Issues ; Incentives ; Industrial Water ; Industry ; Marginal Abatement ; Pollution ; Pollution Abatement ; Pollution Charges ; Pollution Control ; Pollution Discharge ; Prices ; Public Sector Development ; Regulation ; Standards ; Water ; Water Pollution ; Water Resources ; Water and Industry
    Abstract: May 2000 - Community pressure may be as strong an incentive for industrial firms to control pollution in China as pollution levies are. Wang evaluates the strength of the effect that community pressure and pollution charges have on industrial pollution control in China and estimates the marginal cost of pollution abatement. He examines a well-documented set of plant-level data, combined with community-level data, to assess the impact of pollution charges and community pressure on industrial behavior in China. He constructs and estimates an industrial organic water pollution discharge model for plants that violate standards for pollution discharge, pay pollution charges, and are constantly under community pressure to further abate pollution. He creates a model and estimates implicit prices for pollution discharges from community pressure, which are determined jointly by the explicit price, the pollution levy. He finds that the implicit discharge price is at least as high as the explicit price. In other words, community pressure not only exists but may be as strong an incentive as the pollution charge is for industrial firms to control pollution in China. Wang's modeling approach also provides a way to estimate the marginal cost of pollution abatement. The empirical results show that the current marginal cost of abatement is about twice the effective charge rate in China. This paper - a product of Infrastructure and Environment, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to study environmental regulation in developing countries. The author may be contacted at hwang1worldbank.org
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  • 29
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    What Can We Learn about Country Performance from Conditional Comparisons across Countries? (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (26 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Ravallion, Martin What Can We Learn about Country Performance from Conditional Comparisons across Countries?
    Keywords: Crime and Society ; Developing Countries ; Development Assistance ; Development Policy ; Dissemination ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Health Care ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Human Development ; Income Inequality ; Inequality ; Infant ; Infant Mortality ; Knowledge ; Level Of Poverty ; Life Expectancy ; Policy Discussions ; Policy Implications ; Population ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Practitioners ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Development ; Social Policies ; Social Services ; Crime and Society ; Developing Countries ; Development Assistance ; Development Policy ; Dissemination ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Health Care ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Human Development ; Income Inequality ; Inequality ; Infant ; Infant Mortality ; Knowledge ; Level Of Poverty ; Life Expectancy ; Policy Discussions ; Policy Implications ; Population ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Practitioners ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Development ; Social Policies ; Social Services
    Abstract: May 2000 - Existing methods for assessing latent country or institutional performance can yield deceptive results. There have been many attempts to infer latent performance attributes of governments (or other institutions) from conditional comparisons that control for observed variables. Success in doing so could greatly improve government performance. Ravallion critically reviews the econometric foundations of the methods used. He argues that latent heterogeneity remains a fundamental but unresolved problem. Locating a benchmark for measuring performance adds a further problem. Current methods do not yield a consistent estimate of even the mean latent performance attribute. An assessment of country performance by these methods could well be wildly wrong. This paper - a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to assess and improve methods for monitoring and assessing country performance. The study was funded by the Bank's Research Support Budget under the research project Policies for Poor Areas (RPO 681-39). The author may be contacted at mravallionworldbank.org
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    Information and Modeling Issues in Designing Water and Sanitation Subsidy Schemes (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (46 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Halpern, Jonathan Information and Modeling Issues in Designing Water and Sanitation Subsidy Schemes
    Keywords: Administrative Procedures ; Consumption ; Consumption ; Consumption Patterns ; Cred Demand ; E-Business ; Economic Theory and Research ; Empirical Analysis ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Incentives ; Income ; Information ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Need ; Options ; Poverty ; Private Sector Development ; Revenue ; Standards ; Subsidies ; Tariffs ; Town Water Supply and Sanitation ; Values ; Water ; Water Conservation ; Water Resources ; Water Supply and Sanitation ; Water Supply and Sanitation Governance and Institutions ; Water Use ; Willingness To Pay ; Wtp ; Administrative Procedures ; Consumption ; Consumption ; Consumption Patterns ; Cred Demand ; E-Business ; Economic Theory and Research ; Empirical Analysis ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Incentives ; Income ; Information ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Need ; Options ; Poverty ; Private Sector Development ; Revenue ; Standards ; Subsidies ; Tariffs ; Town Water Supply and Sanitation ; Values ; Water ; Water Conservation ; Water Resources ; Water Supply and Sanitation ; Water Supply and Sanitation Governance and Institutions ; Water Use ; Willingness To Pay ; Wtp
    Abstract: May 2000 - Evaluating design alternatives is a first step in introducing optimal water subsidy schemes. The definition of appropriate targeting criteria and subsidy levels needs to be supported by empirical analysis, generally an informationally demanding exercise. An assessment carried out in Panama revealed that targeting individual households would be preferable to geographically based targeting. Empirical analysis also showed that only a small group of very poor households needed a subsidy to pay their water bill. In designing a rational scheme for subsidizing water services, it is important to support the choice of design parameters with empirical analysis that simulates the impact of subsidy options on the target population. Otherwise, there is little guarantee that the subsidy program will meet its objectives. But such analysis is informationally demanding. Ideally, researchers should have access to a single, consistent data set containing household-level information on consumption, willingness to pay, and a range of socioeconomic characteristics. Such a comprehensive data set will rarely exist. G-mez-Lobo, Foster, and Halpern suggest overcoming this data deficiency by collating and imaginatively manipulating different sources of data to generate estimates of the missing variables. The most valuable sources of information, they explain, are likely to be the following: · Customer databases of the water company, which provide robust information on the measured consumption of formal customers but little information on unmeasured consumption, informal customers, willingness to pay, or socioeconomic variables. · General socioeconomic household surveys, which are an excellent source of socioeconomic information but tend to record water expenditure rather than physical consumption. · Willingness-to-pay surveys, which are generally tailored to a specific project, are very flexible, and may be the only source of willingness-to-pay data. However, they are expensive to undertake and the information collected is based on hypothetical rather than real behavior. Where such surveys are unavailable, international benchmark values on willingness to pay may be used. Combining data sets requires some effort and creativity, and creates difficulties of its own. But once a suitable data set has been constructed, a simulation model can be created using simple spreadsheet software. The model used to design Panama's water subsidy proposal addressed these questions: · What are the targeting properties of different eligibility criteria for the subsidy? · How large should the subsidy be? · How much will the subsidy scheme cost, including administrative costs? Armed with the above information, policymakers should be in a position to design a subsidy program that reaches the intended beneficiaries, provides them with the level of financial support that is strictly necessary, meets the overall budget restrictions, and does not waste an excessive amount of funding on administrative costs. This paper - a product of the Finance, Private Sector, and Infrastructure Sector Unit, Latin America and the Caribbean Region - is part of a larger effort in the region to evaluate and disseminate lessons of experience in designing policies to improve the quality and sustainability of infrastructure services and to enhance the access of the poor to these basic services. The authors may be contacted at vfosterworldbank.org or jhalpern@worldbank.org
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    Evaluating Carbon Offsets from Forestry and Energy Projects : How Do They Compare? (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (34 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Chomitz, Kenneth Evaluating Carbon Offsets from Forestry and Energy Projects
    Keywords: Carbon ; Carbon Emissions ; Carbon Policy and Trading ; Clean Development Mechanism ; Climate Change ; Coal ; Developed Countries ; Economies ; Emissions ; Emissions Abatement ; Emissions Reduction ; Energy ; Energy Production and Transportation ; Energy and Environment ; Environment ; Environment and Energy Efficiency ; Environmental ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Forestry ; Insurance ; Investment ; Joint Implementation ; Land ; Land Use ; Public Sector Development ; Risk ; Sustainable Development ; Taxes ; Technology ; Carbon ; Carbon Emissions ; Carbon Policy and Trading ; Clean Development Mechanism ; Climate Change ; Coal ; Developed Countries ; Economies ; Emissions ; Emissions Abatement ; Emissions Reduction ; Energy ; Energy Production and Transportation ; Energy and Environment ; Environment ; Environment and Energy Efficiency ; Environmental ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Forestry ; Insurance ; Investment ; Joint Implementation ; Land ; Land Use ; Public Sector Development ; Risk ; Sustainable Development ; Taxes ; Technology
    Abstract: June 2000 - Under the Clean Development Mechanism, developing countries will be able to produce certified emissions reductions (CERs, sometimes called offsets) through projects that reduce greenhouse gas emissions below business-as-usual levels. The challenges of setting up offset markets are considerable. Do forestry projects, as a class, have more difficulty than energy projects reducing greenhouse gas emissions in ways that are real, measurable, additional, and consistent with sustainable development? Under the Kyoto Protocol, industrial countries accept caps on their emissions of greenhouse gases. They are permitted to acquire offsetting emissions reductions from developing countries - which do not have emissions limitations - to assist in complying with these caps. Because these emissions reductions are defined against a hypothetical baseline, practical issues arise in ensuring that the reductions are genuine. Forestry-related emissions reduction projects are often thought to present greater difficulties in measurement and implementation than energy-related emissions reduction projects. Chomitz discusses how project characteristics affect the process for determining compliance with each of the criteria for qualifying. Those criteria are: · Additionality. Would the emissions reductions not have taken place without the project? · Baseline and systems boundaries (leakage). What would business-as-usual emissions have been without the project? And in this comparison, how broad should spatial and temporal system boundaries be? · Measurement (or sequestration). How accurately can we measure actual with-project emissions levels? · Duration or permanence. Will the project have an enduring mitigating effect? · Local impact. Will the project benefit its neighbors? For all the criteria except permanence, it is difficult to find generic distinctions between land use change and forestry and energy projects, since both categories comprise diverse project types. The important distinctions among projects have to do with such things as: · The level and distribution of the project's direct financial benefits. · How much the project is integrated with the larger system. · The project components' internal homogeneity and geographic dispersion. · The local replicability of project technologies. Permanence is an issue specific to land use change and forestry projects. Chomitz describes various approaches to ensure permanence or adjust credits for duration: the ton-year approach (focusing on the benefits from deferring climatic damage, and rewarding longer deferral); the combination approach (bundling current land use change and forestry emissions reductions with future reductions in the buyer's allowed amount); a technology-acceleration approach; and an insurance approach. This paper - a product of Infrastructure and Environment, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to assess policies for mitigating climate change. The author may be contacted at kchomitzworldbank.org
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    Gender, Poverty, and Nonfarm Employment in Ghana and Uganda (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (48 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Newman, Constance Gender, Poverty, and Nonfarm Employment in Ghana and Uganda
    Keywords: Agricultural Output ; Cash Crops ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Gender ; Gender and Development ; Gender and Health ; Gender and Law ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Household Income Diversification ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Human Capital ; Human Development ; Income ; Income Shares ; Income-Generating Activities ; Inequality ; Law and Development ; Poor ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Levels ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Rural ; Rural Areas ; Rural Development ; Rural Development ; Rural Development Knowledge and Information Systems ; Rural Economy ; Rural Poverty ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Rural Residents ; Agricultural Output ; Cash Crops ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Gender ; Gender and Development ; Gender and Health ; Gender and Law ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Household Income Diversification ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Human Capital ; Human Development ; Income ; Income Shares ; Income-Generating Activities ; Inequality ; Law and Development ; Poor ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Levels ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Rural ; Rural Areas ; Rural Development ; Rural Development ; Rural Development Knowledge and Information Systems ; Rural Economy ; Rural Poverty ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Rural Residents
    Abstract: June 2000 - For women in Ghana and Uganda, nonfarm activities play an important role in yielding the lowest - and the most rapidly declining - rural poverty rates. In both countries rural poverty declined fastest for female heads of household engaged in nonfarm work (which tended to be a secondary activity). But patterns vary between the two countries. Newman and Canagarajah provide evidence that women's nonfarm activities help reduce poverty in two economically and culturally different countries, Ghana and Uganda. In both countries rural poverty rates were lowest - and fell most rapidly - for female heads of household engaged in nonfarm activities. Participation in nonfarm activities increased more rapidly for women, especially married women and female heads of household, than for men. Women were more likely than men to combine agriculture and nonfarm activities. In Ghana it was nonfarm activities (for which income data are available) that provided the highest average incomes and the highest shares of income. Bivariate probit analysis of participation shows that in Uganda female heads of household and in Ghana women in general are significantly more likely than men to participate in nonfarm activities and less likely to participate in agriculture. This paper - a joint product of Rural Development, Development Research Group, and the Social Protection Team, Human Development Network- is part of a larger effort in the Bank to discuss gender, employment, and poverty linkages. The authors may be contacted at cnewman1worldbank.orgor scanagarajah@worldbank.org
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    Asset Distribution, Inequality, and Growth (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (34 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Deininger, Klaus Asset Distribution, Inequality, and Growth
    Keywords: Asset Distribution ; Asset Inequality ; Consumption ; Economic Growth ; Economic Policy ; Economic Theory and Research ; Empirical Evidence ; Equity and Development ; Exogenous Shocks ; Factor Endowments ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Growth Literature ; Growth Regressions ; Human Capital ; Income ; Income Inequality ; Inequality ; Inequality ; Inequality-Growth Relationship ; Investment and Investment Climate ; Labor Policies ; Long-Term Growth ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Negative Impact ; Negative Relationship ; Policy Level ; Political Economy ; Poverty Impact Evaluation ; Poverty Reduction ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Property Rights ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Social Protections and Labor ; Asset Distribution ; Asset Inequality ; Consumption ; Economic Growth ; Economic Policy ; Economic Theory and Research ; Empirical Evidence ; Equity and Development ; Exogenous Shocks ; Factor Endowments ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Growth Literature ; Growth Regressions ; Human Capital ; Income ; Income Inequality ; Inequality ; Inequality ; Inequality-Growth Relationship ; Investment and Investment Climate ; Labor Policies ; Long-Term Growth ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Negative Impact ; Negative Relationship ; Policy Level ; Political Economy ; Poverty Impact Evaluation ; Poverty Reduction ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Property Rights ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Social Protections and Labor
    Abstract: June 2000 - Policymakers addressing the impact of inequality on growth should be more concerned about households' access to assets - and to the opportunities associated with them - than about the distribution of income. Asset inequality - but not income inequality - has a relatively great negative impact on growth and also reduces the effectiveness of educational interventions. With the recent resurgence of interest in equity, inequality, and growth, the possibility of a negative relationship between inequality and economic growth has received renewed interest in the literature. Faced with the prospect that high levels of inequality may persist and give rise to poverty traps, policymakers are paying more attention to the distributional implications of macroeconomic policies. Because high levels of inequality may hurt overall growth, policymakers are exploring measures to promote growth and equity at the same time. How the consequences of inequality are analyzed, along with the possible cures, depends partly on how inequality is measured. Deininger and Olinto use assets (land) rather than income - and a GMM estimator - to examine the robustness of the relationship between inequality and growth that has been observed in the cross-sectional literature but has been drawn into question by recent studies using panel techniques. They find evidence that asset inequality - but not income inequality - has a relatively large negative impact on growth. They also find that a highly unequal distribution of assets reduces the effectiveness of educational interventions. This means that policymakers should be more concerned about households' access to assets, and to the opportunities associated with them, than about the distribution of income. Long-term growth might be improved by measures to prevent large jumps in asset inequality - possibly irreversible asset loss because of exogenous shocks - and by policies to facilitate asset accumulation by the poor. This paper - a product of Rural Development, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to examine the determinants and impact of inequality. The authors may be contacted at kdeiningerworldbank.org or polinto@worldbank.org
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    How Did the World's Poorest Fare in the 1990s? (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (36 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Ravallion, Martin How Did the World's Poorest Fare in the 1990s?
    Keywords: Absolute Poverty ; Aggregate Poverty ; Consumer Price Index ; Consumption ; Consumption Basket ; Consumption Expenditure ; Consumption Expenditures ; Consumption Per Capita ; Consumption Poverty ; Debt Markets ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Higher Inequality ; Household Living Standards ; Household Size ; Incidence Of Poverty ; Income Distribution ; Inequality ; Poor Countries ; Population Policies ; Poverty Diagnostics ; Poverty Line ; Poverty Lines ; Poverty Measures ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Rate ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction Strategies ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Absolute Poverty ; Aggregate Poverty ; Consumer Price Index ; Consumption ; Consumption Basket ; Consumption Expenditure ; Consumption Expenditures ; Consumption Per Capita ; Consumption Poverty ; Debt Markets ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Higher Inequality ; Household Living Standards ; Household Size ; Incidence Of Poverty ; Income Distribution ; Inequality ; Poor Countries ; Population Policies ; Poverty Diagnostics ; Poverty Line ; Poverty Lines ; Poverty Measures ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Rate ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction Strategies ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor
    Abstract: August 2000 - Between 1987 and 1998, the incidence of poverty fell in Asia and the Middle East and North Africa, changed little in Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa, and rose in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. Too little economic growth in the poorest countries and persistent inequalities (in income and other measures) are the main reasons for the disappointing rate of poverty reduction. Drawing on data from 265 national sample surveys spanning 83 countries, Chen and Ravallion find that there was a net decrease in the total incidence of consumption poverty between 1987 and 1998. But it was not enough to reduce the total number of poor people, by various definitions. The incidence of poverty fell in Asia and the Middle East and North Africa, changed little in Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa, and rose in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. The two main proximate causes of the disappointing rate of poverty reduction: too little economic growth in many of the poorest countries, and persistent inequalities (in both income and other essential measures) that kept the poor from participating in the growth that did occur. This paper-a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group-is part of a larger effort in the group to monitor progress against poverty in the developing world. The authors may be contacted at schenworldbank.org or mravallion@worldbank.org
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    The Dynamics of Poverty : Why Some People Escape from Poverty and Others Don't?An African Case Study (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (32 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Kanbur, Ravi The Dynamics of Poverty
    Keywords: Chronically Poor ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Debt Markets ; Economic Policies ; Economic Theory and Research ; Farm Size ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Household Income ; Household Size ; Household Welfare ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Human Capital ; Incidence Of Poverty ; Income ; Investment and Investment Climate ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; New Poor ; Nonfarm Income ; Old Age ; Poor People ; Poverty ; Poverty Diagnostics ; Poverty Incidence ; Poverty Lines ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Reduction ; Rural ; Rural Areas ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Targeting ; Temporarily Poor ; Transfers ; Chronically Poor ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Debt Markets ; Economic Policies ; Economic Theory and Research ; Farm Size ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Household Income ; Household Size ; Household Welfare ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Human Capital ; Incidence Of Poverty ; Income ; Investment and Investment Climate ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; New Poor ; Nonfarm Income ; Old Age ; Poor People ; Poverty ; Poverty Diagnostics ; Poverty Incidence ; Poverty Lines ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Reduction ; Rural ; Rural Areas ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Targeting ; Temporarily Poor ; Transfers
    Abstract: August 1995 - In urban areas of Côte d'Ivoire, human capital is the endowment that best explains welfare changes over time. In rural areas, physical capital - especially the amount of land and farm equipment owned - matters most. Empirical investigations of poverty in developing countries tend to focus on the incidence of poverty at a particular point in time. If the incidence of poverty increases, however, there is no information about how many new poor have joined the existing poor and how many people have escaped poverty. Yet this distinction is of crucial policy importance. The chronically poor may need programs to enhance their human and physical capital endowments. Invalids and the very old may need permanent (targeted) transfers. The temporarily poor, on the other hand, may best be helped with programs that complement their own resources and help them bridge a difficult period. Results from analyses of panel surveys show significant mobility into and out of poverty and reveal a dynamism of the poor that policy should stimulate. Understanding what separates chronic from temporary poverty requires knowing which characteristics differentiate those who escape poverty from those who don't. In earlier work, Grootaert, Kanbur, and Oh found that region of residence and socioeconomic status were important factors. In this paper they investigate the role of other household characteristics, especially such asset endowments as human and physical capital, in the case of Côte d'Ivoire. In urban areas of Côte d'Ivoire, human capital is the most important endowment explaining welfare changes over time. Households with well-educated members suffered less loss of welfare than other households. What seems to have mattered, though, is the skills learned through education, not the diplomas obtained. Diplomas may even have worked against some households in having oriented workers too much toward a formal labor market in a time when employment growth came almost entirely from small enterprises. In rural areas, physical capital - especially the amount of land and farm equipment owned - mattered most. Smallholders were more likely to suffer welfare declines. Households with diversified sources of income managed better, especially if they had an important source of nonfarm income. In both rural and urban areas, larger households suffered greater declines in welfare and households that got larger were unable to increase income enough to maintain their former welfare level. Households whose heads worked in the public sector maintained welfare better than other households, a finding that confirms earlier observations. The results also suggest that government policies toward certain regions or types of household can outweigh the effects of household endownments. Surprisingly, migrant non-Ivorian households tended to be better at preventing welfare losses than Ivorian households, while households headed by women did better than those headed by men (after controlling for differences in or changes in endowment). The implications for policymakers? First, education is associated with higher welfare levels and helps people cope better with economic decline. Second, targeting the social safety net to larger households - possibly through the schools, to reach children - is justified in periods of decline. Third, smallholders might be targeted in rural areas, and ways found to encourage diversification of income there. This paper - a joint product of the Social Policy and Resettlement Division, Environment Department, and the Africa Regional Office, Office of the Chief Economist - is the result of a research project on The Dynamics of Poverty: Why Some People Escape Poverty and Others Don't, A Panel Analysis for Côte d'Ivoire (RPO 678-70)
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    Can Africa Export Manufactures? : The Role of Endowment, Exchange Rates, and Transaction Costs (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (23 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Elbadawi, A. Ibrahim Can Africa Export Manufactures?
    Keywords: Capital Markets ; Comparative Advantage ; Comparative Advantages ; Competitiveness ; Costs ; Currencies and Exchange Rates ; Debt Markets ; Development ; Economic Stabilization ; Economic Theory and Research ; Elasticity ; Emerging Markets ; Exchange ; Exports ; Failures ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Free Trade ; Goods ; Human Capital ; Income Elasticity Of Demand ; Inequality ; International Economics & Trade ; Investment ; Macroeconomic Management ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Natural Resources ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Taxation ; Taxes ; Theory ; Trade ; Variables ; Capital Markets ; Comparative Advantage ; Comparative Advantages ; Competitiveness ; Costs ; Currencies and Exchange Rates ; Debt Markets ; Development ; Economic Stabilization ; Economic Theory and Research ; Elasticity ; Emerging Markets ; Exchange ; Exports ; Failures ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Free Trade ; Goods ; Human Capital ; Income Elasticity Of Demand ; Inequality ; International Economics & Trade ; Investment ; Macroeconomic Management ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Natural Resources ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Taxation ; Taxes ; Theory ; Trade ; Variables
    Abstract: May 1999 - Africa's poor performance in manufactured exports in the 1990s (relative to East Asia) appears to be largely the result of bad policies-especially policies that affect transaction costs. Elbadawi analyzes the determinants of manufactured exports in Africa and other developing countries, guided by three pivotal views on Sub-Saharan Africa's (Africa's) prospects in manufactured exports: ° Adrian Woods holds that Africa cannot have comparative advantage in exports of labor-intensive manufactures (even if broadly defined to include raw material processing) because its natural resources endowment is greater than its human resources endowment (endowment thesis). ° Paul Collier argues that, for most of Africa, unusually high (policy-induced) transaction costs are the main source of Africa's comparative disadvantage in manufactured exports (transaction thesis). ° A third approach (Elbadawi and Helleiner) emphasizes the importance of stable, competitive real exchange rates for profitability of exports in low-income countries (exchange rate-led strategy). Elbadawi tests the implications of these three views with an empirical model of manufactured export performance (manufactured exports' share of GDP), using a panel of 41 countries for 1980-95. His findings: ° Corroborate the predictions of the transaction thesis, in that transaction costs are major determinants of manufactures exports. Investing in reducing these costs generates the highest payoff for export capacity. ° Lend support for the exchange rate-led strategy. After controlling for other factors, ratios of natural resources per worker were not robustly associated with export performance across countries, but this cannot be taken as formal rejection of the endowment thesis - unless one is prepared to assume that manufactured exports' share of GDP was highly correlated with ratios of manufactured to aggregate (or primary) exports. But this is not unlikely. This paper-a product of Public Economics, Development Research Group-is part of a larger effort in the group to research manufactures exports' competitiveness. The author may be contacted at ielbadawiworldbank.org
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    The Dynamics of Poverty and the Effectiveness of Poland's Safety Net (1993 96) (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (86 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Okrasa, Wlodzimierz The Dynamics of Poverty and the Effectiveness of Poland's Safety Net (1993 96)
    Keywords: Chronically Poor ; Economic Growth ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Budget ; Household Income ; Human Development ; Income ; Measures ; Poor ; Poor Households ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Dynamics ; Poverty Index ; Poverty Profile ; Poverty Reduction ; Rural ; Rural Areas ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Safety Nets and Transfers ; Savings ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Policies ; Social Programs ; Social Protections and Labor ; Temporarily Poor ; Unemployment ; Chronically Poor ; Economic Growth ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Budget ; Household Income ; Human Development ; Income ; Measures ; Poor ; Poor Households ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Dynamics ; Poverty Index ; Poverty Profile ; Poverty Reduction ; Rural ; Rural Areas ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Safety Nets and Transfers ; Savings ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Policies ; Social Programs ; Social Protections and Labor ; Temporarily Poor ; Unemployment
    Abstract: November 1999 - Changes in Poland's family allowances and unemployment benefits have significant but different effects on different groups of households. In deciding on strategies to address long-term poverty, policymakers must take such differences into account. Okrasa analyzes how the incidence of household endowments and the allocation of social benefits affect families' transitions into and out of poverty. Using panel data for 1993-96 from Poland's Household Budget Survey, and a framework based on sample survival analysis techniques, Okrasa evaluates how various policies will affect households with specific characteristics that make them likely to become poor or to move out of poverty under different scenarios (including whether or not they receive a given amount of a particular type of social transfer). He also discusses how nonincome sources of welfare, such as savings, credits, and loans, affect the likelihood that families will become or stop being poor. He concludes that family allowances and unemployment benefits, the two major social programs analyzed, have significant but different effects on different groups of households (characterized in terms of the age, gender, marital status, and educational attainment of the head of household; the size, type, location, and sector of employment of the family or household; and the year in which the household fell into poverty). If the share of family allowances in total household income were reduced by 1 percent, for example, the average length of poverty would be increased by roughly 2 percent. But a 1 percent change in unemployment benefits would yield a 3 percent change in the average duration of poverty. Differences in hazard rates for various subgroups would be even greater. Households in villages were much more likely to fall into poverty than households in cities and large towns, but the poor in towns and cities had more difficulty exiting poverty. There was generally less poverty mobility among households headed by public sector employees than among those headed by employees in the private sector. Families with three or more children and one-parent families (and grandparents with children) faced the greatest risk of being poor; single-person households and childless married couples were the least endangered. Small nuclear families with one or two children and families without children fell between these two extremes. This paper - a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to analyze the dynamics of poverty and the effectiveness of the safety net. The study was funded by the Bank's Research Support Budget under the research project Household Welfare Change during the Transition (RPO 681-21). The author may be contacted at wokrasaworldbank.org
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    How Land Registration Affects Financial Development and Economic Growth in Thailand (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (38 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Byamugish, K.F. Frank How Land Registration Affects Financial Development and Economic Growth in Thailand
    Keywords: Banks and Banking Reform ; Climate Change ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Cred Development ; Debt Markets ; Economic Growth ; Economic Growth ; Economic Historians ; Economic Theory and Research ; Environment ; Equations ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Crisis ; GDP Per Capita ; Incentives ; Inequality ; Investment ; Land Use and Policies ; Liquidity ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Markets ; Natural Resources ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Property ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Productivity ; Property Rights ; Public Sector Economics and Finance ; Real GDP ; Regression Analysis ; Rural Development ; Rural Land Policies for Poverty Reduction ; Theory ; Value ; Variables ; Banks and Banking Reform ; Climate Change ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Cred Development ; Debt Markets ; Economic Growth ; Economic Growth ; Economic Historians ; Economic Theory and Research ; Environment ; Equations ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Crisis ; GDP Per Capita ; Incentives ; Inequality ; Investment ; Land Use and Policies ; Liquidity ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Markets ; Natural Resources ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Property ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Productivity ; Property Rights ; Public Sector Economics and Finance ; Real GDP ; Regression Analysis ; Rural Development ; Rural Land Policies for Poverty Reduction ; Theory ; Value ; Variables
    Abstract: November 1999 - Land registration in Thailand has significant positive long-run effects on financial development and economic growth. Using an economywide conceptual framework, the author analyzes how land registration affects financial development and economic growth in Thailand. He uses contemporary techniques, such as error correction and co-integration, to deal with such problems as time-series data not being stationary. He also uses the auto-regressive distributed lag model to analyze long lags in output response to changes in land registration. His key findings: -Land titling has significant positive long-run effects on financial development. -Economic growth responds to land titling following a J curve, by first registering a fall and recovering gradually, thereafter to post a long, strong rally. -The quality of land registration services, as measured by public spending on land registration, has strongly positive and significant long-run effects on economic growth. This paper - a product of the Rural Development and Natural Resources Sector Unit, East Asia and Pacific Region - is part of a larger effort in the region to increase the effectiveness of country assistance strategies in the area of property rights and economic development. The author may be contacted at fbyamugishaworldbank.org
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    The Effects of Land Registration on Financial Development and Economic Growth : A Theoretical and Conceptual Framework (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (22 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Byamugisha, K.F. Frank The Effects of Land Registration on Financial Development and Economic Growth
    Keywords: Bank Policy ; Collateral ; Common Property Resource Development ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Contracts ; Debt Markets ; Depos Deposit Mobilization ; Economic Development ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Exchange ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Development ; Financial Literacy ; Investment ; Labor Policies ; Land Title ; Land Titling ; Land Use and Policies ; Land and Real Estate Development ; Liquidity ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Markets ; Municipal Housing and Land ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Property ; Private Sector Development ; Property Rights ; Rural Development ; Rural Land Policies for Poverty Reduction ; Security ; Seizure ; Social Protections and Labor ; Transaction ; Transaction Costs ; Transactions ; Bank Policy ; Collateral ; Common Property Resource Development ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Contracts ; Debt Markets ; Depos Deposit Mobilization ; Economic Development ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Exchange ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Development ; Financial Literacy ; Investment ; Labor Policies ; Land Title ; Land Titling ; Land Use and Policies ; Land and Real Estate Development ; Liquidity ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Markets ; Municipal Housing and Land ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Property ; Private Sector Development ; Property Rights ; Rural Development ; Rural Land Policies for Poverty Reduction ; Security ; Seizure ; Social Protections and Labor ; Transaction ; Transaction Costs ; Transactions
    Abstract: November 1999 - A theoretical framework to guide empirical analysis of how land registration affects financial development and economic growth. The author develops a theoretical framework to guide empirical analysis of how land registration affects financial development and economic growth. Most conceptual approaches investigate the effects of land registration on only one sector, nut land registration is commonly observed to affect not only other sectors but the economy as a whole The author builds on the well-tested link between secure land ownership and farm productivity, adding to the framework theory about positive information and transaction costs. To map the relationship between land registration and financial development and economic growth, the framework links: -Land tenure security and investment incentives. -Land title, collateral, and credit. -Land markets, transactions, and efficiency. -Labor mobility and efficiency. -Land liquidity, deposit mobilization, and investment. Empirical results from applying the framework to a single case study - of Thailand, described in a separate paper - suggest that the framework is sound. This paper - a product of the Rural Development and Natural Resources Sector Unit, East Asia and Pacific Region - is part of a larger effort in the region to increase the effectiveness of country assistance strategies in the area of property rights and economic development
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    Productivity Growth, Capital Accumulation, and the Banking Sector : Some Lessons from Malaysia (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (26 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Ghani, Ejaz Productivity Growth, Capital Accumulation, and the Banking Sector
    Keywords: Accounting ; Accounting Framework ; Bank ; Banking ; Banking Sector ; Banking System ; Banks ; Banks and Banking Reform ; Capital ; Capital Employed ; Cred Debt ; Debt Markets ; Economic Growth ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Foreign Exchange ; Labor ; Labor Policies ; Lending ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Productivity ; Projects ; Risk ; Risk Management ; Savings ; Social Protections and Labor ; Wages ; Accounting ; Accounting Framework ; Bank ; Banking ; Banking Sector ; Banking System ; Banks ; Banks and Banking Reform ; Capital ; Capital Employed ; Cred Debt ; Debt Markets ; Economic Growth ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Foreign Exchange ; Labor ; Labor Policies ; Lending ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Productivity ; Projects ; Risk ; Risk Management ; Savings ; Social Protections and Labor ; Wages
    Abstract: How did the East Asian miracle turn into one of the worst financial crises of the century? A case study of Malaysia provides some answers. - How did the East Asian miracle turn into one of the worst financial crises of the century? Ghani and Suri address the question using Malaysia as a case study. Many discussions of the East Asian crisis address proximate and short-run causes of the crisis, such as the current account deficit, exchange rate misalignment, and disproportionate short-run external debt relative to foreign exchange reserves. These indicators of vulnerability are themselves endogenous outcomes of deeper institutional features. Ghani and Suri argue that some long-term features of the development strategy that helped sustain high growth in the first place also contributed to the economy's increasing vulnerability. High output growth was driven by rapid growth in capital stock, for example. The banking sector played a critical role in transforming (and accelerating the transformation of) large savings into capital accumulation. But the banking sector may not have been allocating capital efficiently. Ghani and Suri find that the rapid growth in bank lending in Malaysia is negatively associated with total factor productivity growth. On the other hand, the economy's other structural strengths, such as openness to foreign direct investment and technology, helped improve productivity growth. Malaysia's exceptional growth record over the past quarter century was driven largely by the growth in physical capital stock. Total factor productivity growth may have slowed in the late 1990s, and sustaining high output growth will require greater emphasis on productivity improvements. Policies that encouraged the flow of foreign direct investment and better access to imported capital goods contributed to productivity growth. But rapid growth in bank lending relative to GDP may have slowed it. How policymakers can best slow the growth of credit is a question that remains unanswered. This paper - a product of the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Sector Unit, East Asia and Pacific Region - is part of a larger effort in the region to better understand past and future sources of growth. The authors may be contacted at eghaniworldbank.org or vsuri@worldbank.org
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    Regional Integration Agreements : A Force for Convergence or Divergence? (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (36 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Venables, Anthony Regional Integration Agreements
    Keywords: Agriculture ; Comparative Advantage ; Consumers ; Country Strategy and Performance ; Development Economics ; Economic Integration ; Economic Performance ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Free Trade ; Free Trade ; Human Capital ; Income ; Income ; Income Levels ; Inequality ; International Economics & Trade ; Law and Development ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Outcomes ; Per Capita Income ; Per Capita Incomes ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Production ; Public Sector Development ; Real Income ; Social Protections and Labor ; Theory ; Trade Diversion ; Trade Law ; Trade Policy ; Trade and Regional Integration ; Value ; Value Added ; Welfare ; Agriculture ; Comparative Advantage ; Consumers ; Country Strategy and Performance ; Development Economics ; Economic Integration ; Economic Performance ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Free Trade ; Free Trade ; Human Capital ; Income ; Income ; Income Levels ; Inequality ; International Economics & Trade ; Law and Development ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Outcomes ; Per Capita Income ; Per Capita Incomes ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Production ; Public Sector Development ; Real Income ; Social Protections and Labor ; Theory ; Trade Diversion ; Trade Law ; Trade Policy ; Trade and Regional Integration ; Value ; Value Added ; Welfare
    Abstract: December 1999 - Developing countries may be better served by north-south than by south-south free trade agreements. Free trade agreements between low-income countries tend to lead to divergence in member country incomes, while agreements between high-income countries tend to lead to convergence. Venables examines how benefits - and costs - of a free trade area are divided among member countries. Outcomes depend on the member countries' comparative advantage, relative to one another and to the rest of the world. Venables finds that free trade agreements between low-income countries tend to lead to divergence in member country incomes, while agreements between high-income countries tend to lead to convergence. Changes induced by comparative advantage may be amplified by the effects of agglomeration. The results suggest that developing countries may be better served by north-south than by south-south free trade agreements, because north-south agreements increase their prospects for convergence with high-income members of the free trade area. In north-south free trade agreements, additional forces are likely to operate. The agreement may be used, for example, as a commitment mechanism to lock in economic reforms (as happened in Mexico with the North American Free Trade Agreement and in Eastern European countries with the European Union). A free trade agreement may also - through its effect on trade and through foreign direct investment - promote technology transfer to lower-income members. This paper - a product of Trade, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to study the effects of regional integration. The author may be contacted at avenablesworldbank.org
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    Do More Unequal Countries Redistribute More? : Does the Median Voter Hypothesis Hold? (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (56 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Milanovic, Branko Do More Unequal Countries Redistribute More?
    Keywords: Consumption ; Disposable Income ; Economic Mechanism ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Endogenous Growth ; Factor Income ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Fiscal and Monetary Policy ; Growth Rate ; Growth Theories ; Income ; Income ; Income Distribution ; Income Groups ; Income Inequality ; Inequality ; Inequality ; Investment and Investment Climate ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Mean Income ; Median Voter ; Median Voter Hypothesis ; Personal Income ; Personal Income Taxes ; Political Mechanism ; Poverty Impact Evaluation ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Public Choice ; Public Sector Development ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Significant Relationship ; Social Protections and Labor ; Consumption ; Disposable Income ; Economic Mechanism ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Endogenous Growth ; Factor Income ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Fiscal and Monetary Policy ; Growth Rate ; Growth Theories ; Income ; Income ; Income Distribution ; Income Groups ; Income Inequality ; Inequality ; Inequality ; Investment and Investment Climate ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Mean Income ; Median Voter ; Median Voter Hypothesis ; Personal Income ; Personal Income Taxes ; Political Mechanism ; Poverty Impact Evaluation ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Public Choice ; Public Sector Development ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Significant Relationship ; Social Protections and Labor
    Abstract: December 1999 - The data strongly support the hypothesis that countries with more unequal distribution of factor income redistribute more in favor of the poor - even when the analysis controls for older people's share in total population (that is, for pension transfers). But the evidence on the median voter hypothesis is inconclusive even if middle-income groups gain more (or lose less) through redistribution in countries where initial (factor) income distribution is more unequal. The median voter hypothesis is important to endogenous growth theories because it provides the political mechanism through which voters in more unequal countries redistribute a greater proportion of income and thus (it is argued), by blunting incentives, reduce the country's growth rate. But the hypothesis was never properly tested because of lack of data on the distribution of (pre-tax and transfer) factor income across households, and hence on the exact amount of gain by the poorest quintile or poorest half. Milanovic tests the hypothesis using 79 observations drawn from household budget surveys from 24 democracies. The data strongly support the hypothesis that countries with more unequal distribution of factor income redistribute more in favor of the poor - even when the analysis controls for the older people's share in total population (that is, for pension transfers). The evidence on the median voter hypothesis is much weaker. Milanovic does find that middle-income groups gain more (or lose less) through redistribution in countries where initial (factor) income distribution is more unequal. This regularity evaporates, however, when pensions are dropped from social transfers and the focus is strictly on the more redistributive social transfers. This paper - a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to study the relationship between democracy and inequality. The study was funded in part by the Bank's Research Support Budget under the research project Democracy, Redistribution, and Inequality (RPO 683-01). Also published as “The median voter hypothesis, income inequality and income redistribution: An empirical test with the required data”, European Journal of Political Economy , vol. 16, No. 3, September 2000, pp. 367-410. The author may be contacted at bmilanovicworldbank.org
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    Identifying Welfare Effects from Subjective Questions (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (42 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Ravallion, Martin Identifying Welfare Effects from Subjective Questions
    Keywords: Bank ; Current Income ; Economic Theory and Research ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Financial Support ; Future Incomes ; Household Income ; Household Incomes ; Income ; Incomes ; Inequality ; Information ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Money ; Monthly Income ; Personality Tra Personality Traits ; Population ; Poverty Diagnostics ; Poverty Impact Evaluation ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Reduction ; Psychological Traits ; Questionnaire ; Savings ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Protections and Labor ; Unemployed ; Unemployment ; Welfare ; Bank ; Current Income ; Economic Theory and Research ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Financial Support ; Future Incomes ; Household Income ; Household Incomes ; Income ; Incomes ; Inequality ; Information ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Money ; Monthly Income ; Personality Tra Personality Traits ; Population ; Poverty Diagnostics ; Poverty Impact Evaluation ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Reduction ; Psychological Traits ; Questionnaire ; Savings ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Protections and Labor ; Unemployed ; Unemployment ; Welfare
    Abstract: March 2000 - In subjective surveys, people who become ill or lose their jobs report reduced well-being, even if they later get a job. Perhaps their exposure to uninsured risk outside the formal employment sector reduces their expectations about future income. Do potential biases cloud the inferences that can be drawn from subjective surveys? Ravallion and Lokshin argue that the welfare inferences drawn from subjective answers to questions on qualitative surveys are clouded by concerns about the structure of measurement errors and how latent psychological factors influence observed respondent characteristics. They propose a panel data model that allows more robust tests. In applying the model to high-quality panel data for Russia for 1994-96, they find that some results widely reported in past studies of subjective well-being appear to be robust but others do not. Household income, for example, is a highly significant predictor of self-rated economic welfare; per capita income is a weaker predictor. Ill health and loss of a job reduce self-reported economic welfare, but demographic effects are weak at a given current income. And the effect of unemployment is not robust. Returning to work does not restore a sense of welfare unless there is an income gain. The results imply that even transient unemployment brings the feeling of a permanent welfare loss, suggesting that high unemployment benefits do not attract people out of work but do discourage a return to work. This paper - a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to understand the relationship between subjective and objective economic welfare. The authors may be contacted at mravallionworldbank.org and mlokshin@worldbank.org
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    Designing Direct Subsidies for Water and Sanitation Services Panama : A Case Study (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (40 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Halpern, Jonathan Designing Direct Subsidies for Water and Sanitation Services Panama
    Keywords: Access To Cred Administrative Cost ; Administrative Costs ; Beneficiaries ; Beneficiary ; Check ; Customers ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Financial Sustainability ; Gender ; Gender and Law ; Housing Subsidy ; Interest ; Investments ; Law and Development ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Population ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Subsidies ; Subsidization ; Subsidy ; Subsidy Payments ; Tax Law ; Taxation and Subsidies ; Total Costs ; Town Water Supply and Sanitation ; Transport ; Transport Economics, Policy and Planning ; Urban Water Supply and Sanitation ; Water Subsidies ; Water Subsidy ; Water Supply and Sanitation ; Worth ; Access To Cred Administrative Cost ; Administrative Costs ; Beneficiaries ; Beneficiary ; Check ; Customers ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Financial Sustainability ; Gender ; Gender and Law ; Housing Subsidy ; Interest ; Investments ; Law and Development ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Population ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Subsidies ; Subsidization ; Subsidy ; Subsidy Payments ; Tax Law ; Taxation and Subsidies ; Total Costs ; Town Water Supply and Sanitation ; Transport ; Transport Economics, Policy and Planning ; Urban Water Supply and Sanitation ; Water Subsidies ; Water Subsidy ; Water Supply and Sanitation ; Worth
    Abstract: May 2000 - An alternative to traditional subsidies for water and sanitation services is direct subsidies - funds governments provide to cover part of the water bill for households that meet certain criteria. Issues associated with such a subsidy are analyzed through a case study of Panama. As an alternative to traditional subsidy schemes in utility sectors, direct subsidy programs have several advantages: they are transparent, they are explicit, and they minimize distortions of the behavior of both the utility and the customers. At the same time, defining practical eligibility criteria for direct subsidy schemes is difficult and identifying eligible households may entail substantial administrative costs. Foster, Gomez-Lobo, and Halpern, using a case study from Panama, discuss some of the issues associated with the design of direct subsidy systems for water services. They conclude that: · There is a need to assess - rather than assume - the need for a subsidy. A key test of affordability, and thus of the need for a subsidy, is to compare the cost of the service with some measure of household willingness to pay. · The initial assessment must consider the affordability of connection costs as well as the affordability of the service itself. Connection costs may be prohibitive for poor households with no credit, suggesting a need to focus subsidies on providing access rather than ongoing water consumption. · A key issue in designing a direct subsidy scheme is its targeting properties. Poverty is a complex phenomenon and difficult to measure. Eligibility must therefore be based on easily measurable proxy variables, and good proxies are hard to find. In choosing eligibility criteria for a subsidy, it is essential to verify what proportion of the target group fails to meet the criteria (errors of exclusion) and what proportion of nontarget groups is inadvertently eligible for the benefits (errors of inclusion). · Administrative costs are roughly the same no matter what the level of individual subsidies, so a scheme that pays beneficiaries very little will tend not to be cost-effective. It is important to determine what proportion of total program costs will be absorbed by administrative expenses. · Subsidies should not cover the full cost of the service and should be contingent on beneficiaries paying their share of the bill. Subsidies for consumption above a minimum subsistence level should be avoided. Subsidies should be provided long enough before eligibility is reassessed to avoid poverty trap problems. · The utility or concessionaire can be helpful in identifying eligible candidates because of its superior information on the payment histories of customers. It will also have an incentive to do so, since it has an interest in improving poor payment records. Thought should therefore be given at the design stage to the role of the service provider in the implementation of the subsidy scheme. · The administrative agency's responsibilities, the sources of funding, and the general principles guiding the subsidy system should have a clear legal basis, backed by regulations governing administrative procedures. · To reduce administrative costs and avoid duplication of effort, it would be desirable for a single set of institutional arrangements to be used to determine eligibility for all welfare and subsidy programs in a given jurisdiction, whether subnational or national. This paper - a product of the Finance, Private Sector, and Infrastructure Sector Unit, Latin America and the Caribbean Region - is part of a larger effort in the region to evaluate and disseminate lessons of experience in designing policies to improve the quality and sustainability of infrastructure services and to enhance access of the poor to these basic services. The authors may be contacted at vfosterworldbank.org or jhalpern@worldbank.org
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    The Rise, the Fall, and . . . the Emerging Recovery of Project Finance in Transport (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (38 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Estache, Antonio The Rise, the Fall, and . . . the Emerging Recovery of Project Finance in Transport
    Keywords: Bank Debt ; Banks and Banking Reform ; Bond ; Capital Structures ; Debt Markets ; Debt Servicing ; Emerging Bond Markets ; Emerging Markets ; Emerging Markets ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Finance ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Crises ; Financial Intermediation ; Financial Literacy ; Financial Performance ; Good ; Infrastructure Finance ; Interest ; Interest Rate ; Interest Rate Risk ; Investing ; Market ; Pension ; Pension Assets ; Private Sector Development ; Public Sector Economics and Finance ; Revenues ; Short-Term Debt ; Transport ; Transport Economics, Policy and Planning ; Bank Debt ; Banks and Banking Reform ; Bond ; Capital Structures ; Debt Markets ; Debt Servicing ; Emerging Bond Markets ; Emerging Markets ; Emerging Markets ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Finance ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Crises ; Financial Intermediation ; Financial Literacy ; Financial Performance ; Good ; Infrastructure Finance ; Interest ; Interest Rate ; Interest Rate Risk ; Investing ; Market ; Pension ; Pension Assets ; Private Sector Development ; Public Sector Economics and Finance ; Revenues ; Short-Term Debt ; Transport ; Transport Economics, Policy and Planning
    Abstract: July 2000 - Many transport projects undertaken during the boom period of the 1990s came to a crashing halt in 1997, and conditions in emerging markets worsened in 1998 and 1999. Many projects failed, victim of everything from overoptimistic forecasts to excessive debt to an inability to refinance bridge loans. As available financing dried up, many projects went bankrupt, had to be renegotiated, or were taken over by the government. What have we learned from all this? Recent developments in emerging financial markets have dramatically changed the appetite for (and terms of) transport infrastructure projects. As a result of defaults in Asia and Russia and devaluations in Asia, Brazil, and Russia, political and currency and exchange risk premia have increased dramatically. Given large needs for sovereign debt financing, infrastructure project finance will be seeking guarantees at the same time as governments are issuing primary securities. Large portfolio outflows in emerging market funds mean that the sources of both equity and debt capital that became available in the mid-1990s are drying up for all but the most creditworthy projects. Moreover, real economic effects from financial events have consequences in the transport sector, since transport is a derived demand. Any decline in real economic activity is felt quickly in traffic levels and revenues. Currency devaluations that help spur exports may generate higher volumes for seaports and air cargo activity. These effects vary by sector, especially over the medium to longer term. Declines in real economic activity make matters especially difficult for toll roads, as drivers shift to free alternatives and reduce the number of trips taken. What does all this mean for project finance in transport? Risks have increased. Debt finance costs more. The available tenor of debt instruments has shortened and more equity is required for projects. The sources and availability of equity finance have changed. Project finance efforts have shifted from new projects to the privatization, rehabilitation, and expansion of existing facilities. And a superclass of sponsors, bankers, and investors has emerged. Failures and mistakes in project finance deals in the 1990s were sharp and persistent. But much has been learned about sound project economics, conservative financial structures, comprehensive sensitivity analysis, the effects of macroeconomic factors, and the need for proper incentives and sound institutional and regulatory arrangements. This paper-a product of Governance, Regulation, and Finance, World Bank Institute-is part of a larger effort in the institute to increase understanding of infrastructure regulation. The authors may be contacted at aestacheworldbank.org or jstrong@worldbank.org
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    Tax Evasion, Corruption, and the Remuneration of Heterogeneous Inspectors (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (42 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Waly, Waly Tax Evasion, Corruption, and the Remuneration of Heterogeneous Inspectors
    Keywords: Bank ; Corruption ; Debt Markets ; Discretion ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Income Tax ; Insurance and Risk Mitigation ; Law and Development ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poverty Impact Evaluation ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Public Sector Corruption and Anticorruption Measures ; Strategy ; Tax ; Tax Administration ; Tax Base ; Tax Collection ; Tax Compliance ; Tax Enforcement ; Tax Evasion ; Tax Law ; Tax Liabilities ; Tax Liability ; Tax Policies ; Tax Receipts ; Tax Revenue ; Tax Revenues ; Taxation and Subsidies ; Taxes ; Taxpayers ; Bank ; Corruption ; Debt Markets ; Discretion ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Income Tax ; Insurance and Risk Mitigation ; Law and Development ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Poverty Impact Evaluation ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Public Sector Corruption and Anticorruption Measures ; Strategy ; Tax ; Tax Administration ; Tax Base ; Tax Collection ; Tax Compliance ; Tax Enforcement ; Tax Evasion ; Tax Law ; Tax Liabilities ; Tax Liability ; Tax Policies ; Tax Receipts ; Tax Revenue ; Tax Revenues ; Taxation and Subsidies ; Taxes ; Taxpayers
    Abstract: July 2000 - Wane develops a general model for addressing the question of how to compensate tax inspectors in an economy where corruption is pervasive-a model that considers the existence of strategic transmission of information. Most of the literature on corruption assumes that the taxpayer and the tax inspector jointly decide on the income to report, which also determines the size of the bribe. In contrast, Wane's model considers the more realistic case in which the taxpayer unilaterally chooses the income to report. The tax inspector cannot change the report and is faced with a binary choice: either he negotiates the bribe on the basis of the income report or he denounces the tax evader and therefore renounces the bribe. In his model, the optimal compensation scheme must take into account the strategic interaction between taxpayers and tax inspectors: · Pure tax farming (paying tax inspectors a share of their tax collections) is optimal only when all tax inspectors are corruptible. · When there are both honest and corruptible inspectors, the optimal compensation scheme lies between pure tax farming and a pure wage scheme. · Paradoxically, when inspectors are hired beforehand, it may be optimal to offer contracts that attract corruptible inspectors but not honest ones. This paper-a product of Public Economics, Development Research Group-is part of a larger effort in the group to understand how the existence of corruption affects the remuneration schemes tax administrations should offer their inspectors
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    Can the World Cut Poverty in Half? : How Policy Reform and Effective Aid Can Meet International Development Goals (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (56 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Dollar, David Can the World Cut Poverty in Half?
    Keywords: Developing Countries ; Development Assistance ; Development Goals ; Economic Policies ; Global Poverty ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Incidence Of Poverty ; Large Populations ; Low-Income Countries ; Policies ; Policy ; Policy Change ; Population ; Population Growth ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Purchasing Power ; Purchasing Power Parity ; Respect ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Significant Policy ; Workshops ; Developing Countries ; Development Assistance ; Development Goals ; Economic Policies ; Global Poverty ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Incidence Of Poverty ; Large Populations ; Low-Income Countries ; Policies ; Policy ; Policy Change ; Population ; Population Growth ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Purchasing Power ; Purchasing Power Parity ; Respect ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Significant Policy ; Workshops
    Abstract: July 2000 - Poverty in the developing world will decline by roughly half by 2015 if current growth trends and policies persist. But a disproportionate share of poverty reduction will occur in East and South Asia, poverty will decline only slightly in Sub-Saharan Africa, and it will increase in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. What can be done to change this picture? More effective development aid could greatly improve poverty reduction in the areas where poverty reduction is expected to lag: Sub-Saharan Africa, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia. Even more potent would be significant policy reform in the countries themselves. Collier and Dollar develop a model of efficient aid in which the total volume of aid is endogenous. In particular, aid flows respond to policy improvements that create a better environment for poverty reduction and effective use of aid. They use the model to investigate scenarios-of policy reform, of more efficient aid, and of greater volumes of aid-that point the way to how the world could cut poverty in half in every major region. The fact that aid increases the benefits of reform suggests that a high level of aid to strong reformers may increase the likelihood of sustained good policy (an idea ratified in several recent case studies of low-income reformers). Collier and Dollar find that the world is not operating on the efficiency frontier. With the same level of concern, much more poverty reduction could be achieved by allocating aid on the basis of how poor countries are as well as on the basis of the quality of their policies. Global poverty reduction requires a partnership in which third world countries and governments improve economic policy while first world citizens and governments show concern about poverty and translate that concern into effective assistance. This paper-a product of the Development Research Group-is part of a larger effort in the group to study aid effectiveness. The authors may be contacted at pcollierworldbank.org or ddollar@worldbank.org
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    Adjustment and Poverty in Mexican Agriculture : How Farmers' Wealth Affects Supply Response (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (54 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Lopez, Ramon Adjustment and Poverty in Mexican Agriculture
    Keywords: Access To Irrigation ; Agricultural Activities ; Agriculture ; Agriculture and Farming Systems ; Commercial Bank ; Credit Markets ; Crops and Crop Management Systems ; Economic Theory and Research ; Farm Decisions ; Farm Households ; Farm Income ; Farm Work ; Farmer ; Farmers ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Investment and Investment Climate ; Irrigation ; Landholdings ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Markets and Market Access ; Natural Disaster ; Poor Farmer ; Poor Farmers ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Rural Development ; Rural Development Knowledge and Information Systems ; Rural Financial Markets ; Rural Poverty ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Rural Sector ; Small Farms ; Access To Irrigation ; Agricultural Activities ; Agriculture ; Agriculture and Farming Systems ; Commercial Bank ; Credit Markets ; Crops and Crop Management Systems ; Economic Theory and Research ; Farm Decisions ; Farm Households ; Farm Income ; Farm Work ; Farmer ; Farmers ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Investment and Investment Climate ; Irrigation ; Landholdings ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Markets and Market Access ; Natural Disaster ; Poor Farmer ; Poor Farmers ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Rural Development ; Rural Development Knowledge and Information Systems ; Rural Financial Markets ; Rural Poverty ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Rural Sector ; Small Farms
    Abstract: August 1995 - By and large, it appears that the goals of agricultural reform are being met in Mexico. But measures such as decoupling income supports and price supports or reorienting research and extension could help farmers who cannot afford access to machinery and purchased inputs and services. López, Nash, and Stanton report the results of a study of Mexican farm households using 1991 survey data and a smaller resurvey of some of the same households in 1993. One study goal was to empirically examine the relationship between assets and the output supply function. Using a production model focusing on capital as a productive input, they found that both the supply level and the responsiveness (elasticities) to changing input and output prices tend to depend on the farmer's net assets and on how productive assets are used. Regression analysis using data from the surveys shows that farmers who use productive assets such as machinery tend to be positively responsive to price changes, while those with no access to such assets are not. Another study goal was to monitor the condition of Mexican farmers in a rapidly changing policy environment. The 1991 survey data suggest that farmers with more limited use of capital inputs (the low-CI group) were more likely to grow principally corn and to grow fewer crops, on average, than the others. They also had more problems getting credit and were less likely to use purchased inputs, such as seeds, fertilizer, and pesticides, or to use a tractor to prepare the soil. They tended to be less well-educated, and their land tended to be of lower quality. Results from the panel data showed conditions generally improving for the average farmer in the sample area between 1991 and 1993, during a period when agricultural reforms were implemented. Cropping patterns were more diversified, the average size of landholdings increased, the average farmer received more credit (in real terms), more farm households earned income from off-farm work, and more farmers used purchased inputs. Asset ownership and educational attainment also improved modestly. The very small low-CI group in this sample fared as well as, or better than, the other groups. True, their level of educational achievement fell, and fewer of them had off-farm income than in 1991. But their use of credit, irrigation, machinery, and purchased inputs increased more than for other groups. The limited data are not proof of a causal link, but the fact that the goals are being met should at least ensure that adverse conditions are not undermining reform. Farmers that lacked access to productive assets did not respond as well to incentives or take advantage of the opportunities presented by reform and may need assistance, particularly to get access to credit markets. There may be a good argument for decoupling income supports from price supports for farmers, since income payments that are independent of the vagaries of production could provide a more stable signal of creditworthiness than price supports do. Possibly reorienting research and extension services more to the needs of low-CI producers could also improve the efficiency with which the sector adjusts to new incentives. Hypotheses and tentative conclusions from this study will be explored further when more data are collected in 1995. This paper - a product of the International Trade Division, International Economics Department---is part of a larger effort in the department to investigate the effects of international trade policy on individual producers. The study was funded by the Bank's Research Support Budget under the research project Rural Poverty and Agriculture in Mexico: An Analysis of Farm Decisions and Supply Responsiveness (RPO 678-23)
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    Are the Poor Less Well-Insured? : Evidence on Vulnerability to Income Risk in Rural China (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (34 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Ravallion, Martin Are the Poor Less Well-Insured?
    Keywords: 1997 ; China ; Consumption ; Consumption ; Current Consumption ; Emerging Markets ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Intermediation ; Fiscal and Monetary Policy ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Size ; Households ; Income ; Income ; Income Risk ; Income Shock ; Inequality ; Insurance ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Martin ; Poor ; Poor Areas ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Public Sector Development ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Protections and Labor ; Vulnerability ; Wealth Groups ; 1997 ; China ; Consumption ; Consumption ; Current Consumption ; Emerging Markets ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Intermediation ; Fiscal and Monetary Policy ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Size ; Households ; Income ; Income ; Income Risk ; Income Shock ; Inequality ; Insurance ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Martin ; Poor ; Poor Areas ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Public Sector Development ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Protections and Labor ; Vulnerability ; Wealth Groups
    Abstract: December 1997 - In rural China, those in the poorest wealth decile are the least well-insured, with 40 percent of an income shock being passed on to current consumption. By contrast, consumption by the richest third of households is protected from almost 90 percent of an income shock. Jalan and Ravallion test how well consumption is insured against income risk in a panel of sampled households in rural China. They estimate the risk insurance models by Generalized Method of Moments, treating income and household size as endogenous. Insurance exists for all wealth groups, although the hypothesis of perfect insurance is universally rejected. Those in the poorest wealth decile are the least well-insured, with 40 percent of an income shock being passed on to current consumption. By contrast, consumption by the richest third of households is protected from almost 90 percent of an income shock. The extent of insurance in a given wealth stratum varies little between poor and nonpoor areas. This paper-a product of the Development Research Group-is part of a larger effort in the group to understand private insurance arrangements in poor rural economies. The study was funded by the Bank's Research Support Budget under the research project Dynamics of Poverty in Rural China (RPO 678-69)
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    Aid Allocation and Poverty Reduction (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (46 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Dollar, David Aid Allocation and Poverty Reduction
    Keywords: Development Efforts ; Domestic Poverty ; Economic Growth ; Elimination Of Poverty ; Emergencies ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Level Of Poverty ; Living Standards ; National Policy ; Policies ; Policy Level ; Poor People ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Quantitative Measures ; Recipient Countries ; Respect ; Rule Of Law ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Sectoral Policies ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Sustainable Growth ; War ; Development Efforts ; Domestic Poverty ; Economic Growth ; Elimination Of Poverty ; Emergencies ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Level Of Poverty ; Living Standards ; National Policy ; Policies ; Policy Level ; Poor People ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Quantitative Measures ; Recipient Countries ; Respect ; Rule Of Law ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Sectoral Policies ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Sustainable Growth ; War
    Abstract: In the efficient allocation of aid, aid is targeted disproportionately to countries with severe poverty and adequate policies. For a given level of poverty, aid tapers in with policy reform. In the actual allocation of aid, aid tapers out with reform. - Aid now lifts about 30 million people a year out of absolute poverty. With a poverty-efficient allocation, the same amount of aid would lift about 80 million people out of poverty. Collier and Dollar derive a poverty-efficient allocation of aid and compare it with actual aid allocations. They build the poverty-efficient allocation in two stages. First they use new World Bank ratings of 20 different aspects of national policy to establish the current relationship between aid, policies, and growth. Onto that, they add a mapping from growth to poverty reduction, which reflects the level and distribution of income. They compare the effects of using headcount and poverty-gap measures of poverty. They find the actual allocation of aid to be radically different from the poverty-efficient allocation. In the efficient allocation, for a given level of poverty, aid tapers in with policy reform. In the actual allocation, aid tapers out with reform. In the efficient allocation, aid is targeted disproportionately to countries with severe poverty and adequate policies - the type of country where 74 percent of the world's poor live. In the actual allocation, such countries receive a much smaller share of aid (56 percent) than their share of the world's poor. With the present allocation, aid is effective in sustainably lifting about 30 million people a year out of absolute poverty. With a poverty-efficient allocation, this would increase to about 80 million people. Even with political constraints introduced to keep allocations for India and China constant, poverty reduction would increase to about 60 million. Reallocating aid is politically difficult, but it may be considerably less difficult than quadrupling aid budgets, which is what the authors estimate would be necessary to achieve the same impact on poverty reduction with existing aid allocations. This paper - a joint product of the Office of the Director, and Macroeconomics and Growth, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to examine aid effectiveness. The authors may be contacted at pcollierworldbank.org or ddollar@worldbank.org
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    Social Exclusion and Land Administration in Orissa, India (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (83 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Mearns, Robin Social Exclusion and Land Administration in Orissa, India
    Keywords: Access To Land ; Charges ; Common Property Resource Development ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Contracts ; Fees ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Forestry ; Grants ; Income ; Institutional Analysis ; Institutional Reform ; Institutional Reforms ; Land ; Land Tenure ; Land Use ; Land Use and Policies ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Public ; Public Sector Management and Reform ; Public and Municipal Finance ; Revenue ; Revenue Collection ; Rural Development ; Rural Development Knowledge and Information Systems ; Rural Land Policies for Poverty Reduction ; Social Exclusion ; State Governments ; States ; Subnational Governance ; Urban Areas ; Urban Development ; Urban Economics ; Urban Governance and Management ; Access To Land ; Charges ; Common Property Resource Development ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Contracts ; Fees ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Forestry ; Grants ; Income ; Institutional Analysis ; Institutional Reform ; Institutional Reforms ; Land ; Land Tenure ; Land Use ; Land Use and Policies ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Public ; Public Sector Management and Reform ; Public and Municipal Finance ; Revenue ; Revenue Collection ; Rural Development ; Rural Development Knowledge and Information Systems ; Rural Land Policies for Poverty Reduction ; Social Exclusion ; State Governments ; States ; Subnational Governance ; Urban Areas ; Urban Development ; Urban Economics ; Urban Governance and Management
    Abstract: May 1999 - Which factors prevent the rural poor and other socially excluded groups from having access to land in Orissa, India? The authors report on the first empirical study of its kind to examine - from the perspective of transaction costs - factors that constrain access to land for the rural poor and other socially excluded groups in India. They find that: -Land reform has reduced large landholdings since the 1950s. Medium size farms have gained most. Formidable obstacles still prevent the poor from gaining access to land. -The complexity of land revenue administration in Orissa is partly the legacy of distinctly different systems, which produced more or less complete and accurate land records. These not-so-distant historical records can be important in resolving contemporary land disputes. -Orissa tried legally to abolish land-leasing. Concealed tenancy persisted, with tenants having little protection under the law. -Women's access to and control over land, and their bargaining power with their husbands about land, may be enhanced through joint land titling, a principle yet to be realized in Orissa. -Land administration is viewed as a burden on the state rather than a service, and land records and registration systems are not coordinated. Doing so will improve rights for the poor and reduce transaction costs - but only if the system is transparent and the powerful do not retain the leverage over settlement officers that has allowed land grabs. Land in Orissa may be purchased, inherited, rented (leased), or - in the case of public land and the commons - encroached upon. Each type of transaction - and the State's response, through land law and administration - has implications for poor people's access to land. The authors find that: -Land markets are thin and transaction costs are high, limiting the amount of agricultural land that changes hands. -The fragmentation of landholdings into tiny, scattered plots is a brake on agricultural productivity, but efforts to consolidate land may discriminate against the rural poor. Reducing transaction costs in land markets will help. - Protecting the rural poor's rights of access to common land requires raising public awareness and access to information. -Liberalizing land-lease markets for the rural poor will help, but only if the poor are ensured access to institutional credit. This paper - a product of the Rural Development Sector Unit, South Asia Region - is part of a larger effort in the region to promote access to land and to foster more demand-driven and socially inclusive institutions in rural development. Robin Mearns may be contacted at rmearnsworldbank.org
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    Assessing the Impact of Micro-credit on Poverty and Vulnerability in Bangladesh (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (54 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Zaman, Hassan Assessing the Impact of Micro-credit on Poverty and Vulnerability in Bangladesh
    Keywords: Access To Cred Bank ; Banks and Banking Reform ; Borrowers ; Borrowing ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Cred Household Expenditure ; Debt Markets ; Economic Theory and Research ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Intermediation ; Financial Literacy ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Illiteracy ; Income ; Income Sources ; Investing ; Knowledge ; Loan ; Loan Period ; Loans ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Population Policies ; Poverty Reduction ; Risk Reduction ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Senior ; Student ; Supply ; Welfare ; Access To Cred Bank ; Banks and Banking Reform ; Borrowers ; Borrowing ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Cred Household Expenditure ; Debt Markets ; Economic Theory and Research ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Intermediation ; Financial Literacy ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Illiteracy ; Income ; Income Sources ; Investing ; Knowledge ; Loan ; Loan Period ; Loans ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Population Policies ; Poverty Reduction ; Risk Reduction ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Senior ; Student ; Supply ; Welfare
    Abstract: July 1999 - While micro-credit interventions can play an important role in reducing vulnerability through a number of channels, a significant impact on poverty reduction is achieved under more restrictive conditions. These conditions revolve around whether the borrower has crossed a cumulative loan threshold and on how poor the household is to start with. Zaman examines the extent to which micro-credit reduces poverty and vulnerability through a case study of BRAC, one of the largest providers of micro-credit to the poor in Bangladesh. Household consumption data collected from 1,072 households is used to show that the largest effect on poverty arises when a moderate-poor BRAC loanee borrows more that 10,000 taka (US
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    Income Gains to the Poor from Workfare : Estimates for Argentina's Trabajar Program (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (36 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Ravallion, Martin Income Gains to the Poor from Workfare
    Keywords: Communities & Human Settlements ; Counterfactual ; Economic Theory and Research ; Evaluation ; Experimental Design ; Experimental Methods ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Impact Evaluation ; Income ; Income ; Inequality ; Intervention ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Matching Methods ; Outcomes ; Participation ; Poverty ; Poverty Impact Evaluation ; Poverty Measures ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Reduction ; Programs ; Projects ; Reflexive Comparisons ; Research ; Sampling ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Protections and Labor ; Surveys ; Targeting ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Counterfactual ; Economic Theory and Research ; Evaluation ; Experimental Design ; Experimental Methods ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Impact Evaluation ; Income ; Income ; Inequality ; Intervention ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Matching Methods ; Outcomes ; Participation ; Poverty ; Poverty Impact Evaluation ; Poverty Measures ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Reduction ; Programs ; Projects ; Reflexive Comparisons ; Research ; Sampling ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Protections and Labor ; Surveys ; Targeting
    Abstract: July 1999 - A workfare program was introduced in response to high unemployment in Argentina. An ex-post evaluation using matching methods indicates that the program generated sizable net income gains to generally poor participants. Jalan and Ravallion use propensity-score matching methods to estimate the net income gains to families of workers participating in an Argentinian workfare program. The methods they propose are feasible for evaluating safety net interventions in settings in which many other methods are not feasible. The average gain is about half the gross wage. Even allowing for forgone income, the distribution of gains is decidedly pro-poor. More than half the beneficiaries are in the poorest decile nationally and 80 percent of them are in the poorest quintile - reflecting the self-targeting feature of the program design. Average gains for men and women are similar, but gains are higher for younger workers. Women's greater participation would not enhance average income gains, and the distribution of gains would worsen. Greater participation by the young would raise average gains but would also worsen the distribution. This paper - a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to improve methods for evaluating the poverty impact of Bank-supported programs. The authors may be contacted at jjalanisid.ac.in or mravallion@worldbank.org
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    Jamaica's Food Stamp Program : Impacts on Poverty and Welfare (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (42 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Ezemenari, Kene Jamaica's Food Stamp Program
    Keywords: Agricultural Sector ; Dates ; Debt Markets ; Farm-Gate ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Food ; Food Consumption ; Food Policy ; Food Price ; Food Stamps ; Food Subsidies ; Food Subsidy ; Food and Beverage Industry ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Incidence Of Poverty ; Industry ; Milk ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Gap ; Poverty Impact ; Poverty Lines ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction Strategies ; Poverty Severity ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Rice ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Safety Net ; Safety Nets ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Small Area Estimation Poverty Mapping ; Urban Partnerships and Poverty ; Agricultural Sector ; Dates ; Debt Markets ; Farm-Gate ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Food ; Food Consumption ; Food Policy ; Food Price ; Food Stamps ; Food Subsidies ; Food Subsidy ; Food and Beverage Industry ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Incidence Of Poverty ; Industry ; Milk ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Gap ; Poverty Impact ; Poverty Lines ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction Strategies ; Poverty Severity ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Rice ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Safety Net ; Safety Nets ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Small Area Estimation Poverty Mapping ; Urban Partnerships and Poverty
    Abstract: Without the food stamp program, the poverty gap in Jamaica would have been much worse during the early 1990s, when the Jamaican dollar was being devalued. Households with elderly members and young children benefited most from the program. - Ezemenari and Subbarao examine how the food stamp program affected measures of poverty during devaluation of the Jamaican dollar in the early 1990s. They find that without the food stamp program, the poverty gap in Jamaica would have been much worse, especially in 1990 and 1991. For the country as a whole, not having a food stamp program wouldn't have affected the incidence of poverty significantly, but particular groups among the poor would have fared worse. Households with elderly residents benefited most from the program. Households with young children benefited more than households without, in terms of the poverty headcount and gap. The program also appears to have had more effect on extremely poor households than on those of the transient poor (people who move in and out of poverty). Explicitly incorporating behavioral responses into the model reduces the contribution of food stamps to household consumption and poverty, but the poorest benefited most from the program even after accounting for behavioral responses. The program contributed more to reducing poverty than to smoothing consumption. This paper - a product of the Poverty Division, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network - was presented at the World Bank Institute workshop Evaluating the Impact of Development Interventions: Concepts, Methods and Cases, December 9-10, 1998. The authors may be contacted at kezemenariworldbank.org or ksubbarao@worldbank.org
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    When Is Growth Pro-Poor? : Evidence from the Diverse Experiences of India's States (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (36 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Ravallion, Martin When Is Growth Pro-Poor?
    Keywords: Absolute Poverty ; Economic Growth ; Farm Growth ; Farm Output ; Farm Productivity ; Food Policy ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Household Surveys ; Human Development ; Inequality ; Measures ; Poor ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Alleviation ; Poverty Measurement ; Poverty Reducing ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Rural ; Rural Development ; Rural Development ; Rural Living Standards ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Absolute Poverty ; Economic Growth ; Farm Growth ; Farm Output ; Farm Productivity ; Food Policy ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Household Surveys ; Human Development ; Inequality ; Measures ; Poor ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Alleviation ; Poverty Measurement ; Poverty Reducing ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Rural ; Rural Development ; Rural Development ; Rural Living Standards ; Rural Poverty Reduction
    Abstract: December 1999 - Nonfarm economic growth in India had very different effects on poverty in different states. Nonfarm growth was least effective at reducing poverty in states where initial conditions were poor in terms of rural development and human resources. Among initial conditions conducive to pro-poor growth, literacy plays a notably positive role. Ravallion and Datt use 20 household surveys for India's 15 major states, spanning 1960-94, to study how initial conditions and the sectoral composition of economic growth interact to influence how much economic growth reduced poverty. The elasticities of measured poverty to farm yields and development spending did not differ significantly across states. But the elasticities of poverty to (urban and rural) nonfarm output varied appreciably, and the differences were quantitatively important to the overall rate of poverty reduction. States with initially lower farm productivity, lower rural living standards relative to those in urban areas, and lower literacy experienced a less pro-poor growth process. This paper - a joint product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group, and the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Sector Unit, South Asia Region - is part of a larger effort in the Bank to better understand the conditions required for pro-poor growth. The authors may be contacted at mravallionworldbank.org or gdatt@worldbank.org
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    Sources of Ethnic Inequality in Vietnam (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (38 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Walle, devan Dominique Sources of Ethnic Inequality in Vietnam
    Keywords: Agricultural Knowledge and Information Systems ; Agriculture ; Basic Infrastructure ; Cash Crops ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Debt Markets ; Development Policies ; Disability ; Discrimination ; Ethnic Groups ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Health Care ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Ill-Health ; Income Inequality ; Indigenous Practices ; Knowledge ; Land Tenure ; Large Population ; Living Standards ; Minority ; Policies ; Policy ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Public Services ; Rural Areas ; Rural Development ; Rural Development ; Rural Development Knowledge and Information Systems ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Social Protections and Labor ; Urban Development ; Urban Housing ; Agricultural Knowledge and Information Systems ; Agriculture ; Basic Infrastructure ; Cash Crops ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Debt Markets ; Development Policies ; Disability ; Discrimination ; Ethnic Groups ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Health Care ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Ill-Health ; Income Inequality ; Indigenous Practices ; Knowledge ; Land Tenure ; Large Population ; Living Standards ; Minority ; Policies ; Policy ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Public Services ; Rural Areas ; Rural Development ; Rural Development ; Rural Development Knowledge and Information Systems ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Social Protections and Labor ; Urban Development ; Urban Housing
    Abstract: March 2000 - To redress ethnic inequality in Vietnam, it is not enough to target poor areas. Policies must be designed to reach minority households in poor areas, to open up options by ensuring that minority groups are not disadvantaged (in labor markets, for example), to change the conditions that have caused their isolation and social exclusion, and to explicitly recognize behavior patterns (including compensating behavior) that have served the minorities well but intensify ethnic inequalities in the longer term. Vietnam's ethnic minorities, who tend to live mostly in remote rural areas, typically have lower living standards than the ethnic majority. How much is this because of differences in economic characteristics (such as education levels and land) rather than low returns to characteristics? Is there a self-reinforcing culture of poverty in the minority groups, reflecting patterns of past discrimination? Van de Walle and Gunewardena find that differences in levels of living are due in part to the fact that the minorities live in less productive areas characterized by difficult terrain, poor infrastructure, less access to off-farm work and the market economy, and inferior access to education. Geographic disparities tend to persist because of immobility and regional differences in living standards. But the authors also find large differences within geographical areas even after controlling for household characteristics. They find differences in returns to productive characteristics to be the most important explanation for ethnic inequality. But the minorities do not obtain lower returns to all characteristics. There is evidence of compensating behavior. For example, pure returns to location - even in remote, inhospitable areas - tend to be higher for minorities, though not high enough to overcome the large consumption difference with the majority. The majority ethnic group's model of income generation is a poor guide on how to fight poverty among ethnic minority groups. Nor is it enough to target poor areas to redress ethnic inequality. Policies must be designed to reach minority households in poor areas and to explicitly recognize behavior patterns (including compensating behavior) that have served the minorities well in the short term but intensify ethnic inequalities in the longer term. It will be important to open up options for minority groups both by ensuring that they are not disadvantaged (in labor markets, for example), and by changing the conditions that have caused their isolation and social exclusion. This paper - a product of Public Economics and Rural Development, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to understand the determinants of poverty and the policy implications. Dominique van de Walle may be contacted at dvandewalleworldbank.org
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    Single Mothers in Russia : Household Strategies for Coping with Poverty (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (32 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Lokshin, Michael Single Mothers in Russia
    Keywords: Child Care ; Childbearing ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Divorce ; Family Income ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Gender ; Gender and Law ; Health Care ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Infant ; Infant Health ; Labor Market ; Law and Development ; Male Mortality ; Mother ; Nutrition ; Opportunities For Women ; Population ; Population Center ; Population Policies ; Population and Development ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Safety Net ; Single Mothers ; Single-Parent Families ; Single-Parent Households ; Social Concern ; Social Development ; Social Inclusion and Institutions ; Child Care ; Childbearing ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Divorce ; Family Income ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Gender ; Gender and Law ; Health Care ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Infant ; Infant Health ; Labor Market ; Law and Development ; Male Mortality ; Mother ; Nutrition ; Opportunities For Women ; Population ; Population Center ; Population Policies ; Population and Development ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Safety Net ; Single Mothers ; Single-Parent Families ; Single-Parent Households ; Social Concern ; Social Development ; Social Inclusion and Institutions
    Abstract: March 2000 - Because of the decline in government assistance that accompanied economic reform in Russia, single mothers there - facing a greater risk of poverty - are increasingly choosing to live with other adults or relatives. Lokshin, Harris, and Popkin describe trends in single parenthood in Russia, examining factors that affect living arrangements in single-mother families. Before economic reform, single mothers and their children were somewhat protected from poverty by government assistance (income support, subsidized child care, and full employment guarantees). Economic reform in Russia has reduced government transfers, eliminated publicly subsidized preschool care programs, and worsened women's opportunities in the labor market. The loss of government support has eroded family stability and left single mothers at increased risk of poverty. Over the last decade, the proportion of households headed by women has increased rapidly, raising the risk of poverty. Single-parent families now represent nearly a quarter of all Russian households. Using seven rounds of data from the Russian Longitudinal Monitoring Survey, the authors investigate how household living arrangements and other factors affect income in single-mother families. They find that a single parent with more earning power and child benefits is more likely not to live with relatives. But single mothers are increasingly choosing to live with other adults or relatives to survive and to raise their children in times of economic stress and uncertainty. Half of all single mothers in Russia live with their parents, their adult siblings, or other adult relatives. Help from relatives is important to single-mother families, and that help - including the sharing of domestic and child-care duties - is more efficient and productive when the single parent lives with the family. The other half live in independent residences and face increased risk of poverty. This paper - a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to understand the mechanisms used by households in transition economies to cope with poverty
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    What Drives Private Saving around the World? (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (38 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Loayza, Norman What Drives Private Saving around the World?
    Keywords: Capital Gains ; Central Bank ; Currencies and Exchange Rates ; Debt Markets ; Demographic ; Developing Countries ; Developing Country ; Disposable Income ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Fiscal Policy ; Housing Lending ; Income ; Inequality ; Inflation Episodes ; Interest ; Interest Rate ; Interest Rates ; Liberalization ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Pension ; Pension System ; Poverty Reduction ; Prices ; Private Saving ; Private Sector Development ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Public Policies ; Trade ; Capital Gains ; Central Bank ; Currencies and Exchange Rates ; Debt Markets ; Demographic ; Developing Countries ; Developing Country ; Disposable Income ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Fiscal Policy ; Housing Lending ; Income ; Inequality ; Inflation Episodes ; Interest ; Interest Rate ; Interest Rates ; Liberalization ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Pension ; Pension System ; Poverty Reduction ; Prices ; Private Saving ; Private Sector Development ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Public Policies ; Trade
    Abstract: March 2000 - Saving rates vary considerably across countries and over time. Policies that spur development are an indirect but effective way to raise private saving rates - which rise with the level and growth rate of real per capita income. Loayza, Schmidt-Hebbel, and Servén investigate the policy and nonpolicy factors behind saving disparities, using a large panel data set and an encompassing approach including several relevant determinants of private saving. They extend the literature in several dimensions by: · Using the largest data set on aggregate saving assembled to date. · Using panel instrumental variable techniques to correct for endogeneity and heterogeneity. · Performing robustness checks on changes in estimation procedures, data samples, and model specification. Their main empirical findings: · Private saving rates show considerable inertia (are highly serially correlated even after controlling for other relevant factors). · Private saving rates rise with the level and growth rate of real per capita income. So policies that spur development are an indirect but effective way to raise private saving rates. · Predictions of the life-cycle hypothesis are supported in that dependency ratios generally have a negative effect on private saving rates. · The precautionary motive for saving is supported by the finding that inflation - conventionally taken as a summary measure of macroeconomic volatility - has a positive impact on private saving, holding other facts constant. · Fiscal policy is a moderately effective tool for raising national saving. · The direct effects of financial liberalization are largely detrimental to private saving rates. Greater availability of credit reduces the private saving rate; financial depth and higher real interest rates do not increase saving. This paper - a product of Macroeconomics and Growth, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to understand the determinants of saving in developing countries. The study was funded by the Bank's Research Support Budget under the research project Saving in the World: Puzzles and Policies (RPO 681-36). The authors may be contacted at nloayzaworldbank.org or lserven@worldbank.org
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    Distributional Outcomes of a Decentralized Welfare Program (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (42 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Galasso, Emanuela Distributional Outcomes of a Decentralized Welfare Program
    Keywords: Anti-Poverty ; Community Groups ; Community Organizations ; Conflict ; Food-For-Education ; Income ; Irrigation ; Land Inequality ; Local Farmers ; Local Irrigation Facility ; Participatory Poverty Assessments ; Poor ; Poor Families ; Poor Farmers ; Poor Households ; Poverty Programs ; Poverty Reduction ; Public Spending ; Rural ; Rural Development ; Rural Families ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Targeting ; Anti-Poverty ; Community Groups ; Community Organizations ; Conflict ; Food-For-Education ; Income ; Irrigation ; Land Inequality ; Local Farmers ; Local Irrigation Facility ; Participatory Poverty Assessments ; Poor ; Poor Families ; Poor Farmers ; Poor Households ; Poverty Programs ; Poverty Reduction ; Public Spending ; Rural ; Rural Development ; Rural Families ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Targeting
    Abstract: April 2000 - Community-level targeting of antipoverty programs is now common. Do local community organizations target the poor better than the central government? In one program in Bangladesh, the answer tends to be yes, but performance varies from village to village. The authors try to explain why. It is common for central governments to delegate authority over the targeting of welfare programs to local community organizations - which may be better informed about who is poor, though possibly less accountable for getting the money to the local poor - while the center retains control over how much goes to each local region. Galasso and Ravallion outline a theoretical model of the interconnected behavior of the various actors in such a setting. The model's information structure provides scope for econometric identification. Applying data for a specific program in Bangladesh, they find that overall targeting was mildly pro-poor, mostly because of successful targeting within villages. But this varied across villages. Although some village characteristics promoted better targeting, these were generally not the same characteristics that attracted resources from the center. Galasso and Ravallion observe that the center's desire for broad geographic coverage appears to have severely constrained the scope for pro-poor village targeting. However, poor villages tended not to be better at reaching their poor. They find some evidence that local institutions matter. The presence of cooperatives for farmers and the landless appears to be associated with more pro-poor program targeting. The presence of recreational clubs has the opposite effect. Sometimes the benefits of decentralized social programs are captured by local elites, depending on the type of spending being decentralized. When public spending is on a private (excludable) good, and there is no self-targeting mechanism to ensure that only the poor participate, there is ample scope for local mistargeting. This paper - a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to assess the performance of alternative means of reaching the poor through public programs. The study was funded by the Bank's Research Support Budget under the research project Policies for Poor Areas (RPO 681-39). The authors may be contacted at egalassoworldbank.org or mravallion@worldbank.org
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    How Urban Concentration Affects Economic Growth (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (48 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Henderson, Vernon How Urban Concentration Affects Economic Growth
    Keywords: Capital ; Consumers ; Costs ; Development ; Economic Efficiency ; Economic Geography ; Economic Growth ; Economic Theory and Research ; Economies Of Scale ; Economy ; Emerging Markets ; Externalities ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; GDP ; GDP Per Capita ; Goods ; Growth Rate ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Income ; Industrialization ; Inequality ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Marginal Benefits ; Markets ; Population Policies ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Social Protections and Labor ; Telecommunications ; Transactions Costs ; Transport ; Transport Economics, Policy and Planning ; Urban Development Policies and Strategies ; Urban Housing and Land ; Capital ; Consumers ; Costs ; Development ; Economic Efficiency ; Economic Geography ; Economic Growth ; Economic Theory and Research ; Economies Of Scale ; Economy ; Emerging Markets ; Externalities ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; GDP ; GDP Per Capita ; Goods ; Growth Rate ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Income ; Industrialization ; Inequality ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Marginal Benefits ; Markets ; Population Policies ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Social Protections and Labor ; Telecommunications ; Transactions Costs ; Transport ; Transport Economics, Policy and Planning ; Urban Development Policies and Strategies ; Urban Housing and Land
    Abstract: April 2000 - If urban overconcentration really is an issue, it ought to affect economic growth rates in a robust, consistent fashion. And it does. Not only is there an optimal degree of urban concentration that varies with country income, but departures from optimal concentration result in substantial growth losses. Overconcentrated countries can reduce concentration by investing in interregional transport infrastructure - in particular, increasing the density of road networks. Henderson explores the issue of urban overconcentration econometrically, using data from a panel of 80 to 100 countries every 5 years from 1960 to 1995. He finds the following: · At any level of development there is indeed a best degree of national urban concentration. It increases sharply as income rises, up to a per capita income of about
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    Social Transfers and Social Assistance : An Empirical Analysis Using Latvian Household Survey Data (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (36 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Milanovic, Branko Social Transfers and Social Assistance
    Keywords: Cash Transfers ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Household Budget ; Household Per Capita Income ; Household Survey ; Income ; Income Distribution ; Insurance ; Poor ; Poor Households ; Poor Individuals ; Poverty ; Poverty Alleviation ; Poverty Assessments ; Poverty Impact Evaluation ; Poverty Line ; Poverty Reduction ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Assistance ; Targeting ; Transfers ; Transfers In Kind ; Transition Economies ; Unemployment ; Cash Transfers ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Household Budget ; Household Per Capita Income ; Household Survey ; Income ; Income Distribution ; Insurance ; Poor ; Poor Households ; Poor Individuals ; Poverty ; Poverty Alleviation ; Poverty Assessments ; Poverty Impact Evaluation ; Poverty Line ; Poverty Reduction ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Assistance ; Targeting ; Transfers ; Transfers In Kind ; Transition Economies ; Unemployment
    Abstract: April 2000 - In Latvia, only 1.5 percent of households receive social assistance, which for those households represents 20 percent of income. The allocation of social assistance is unequal. Urban households outside the capital (Riga) and those headed by male adults are systematically discriminated against. Because social assistance is locally financed, poor households in different parts of the country are treated unequally. Milanovic assesses the performance of Latvia's system of social transfers, in three ways: First, he analyzes the incidence (who receives transfers) of pensions, family allowances, unemployment benefits, and social assistance. Per capita analysis shows pensions tending to be pro-rich and families allowances pro-poor (a finding typical in poverty analyses). Introducing an equivalence scale alters the results and shows all individual cash transfers performing about the same: mildly pro-poor. Next, he examines the performance of social assistance, which is, by definition, directed to the poor. He shows that Latvia's current system is concentrated - meaning that social assistance is disbursed to few households (only 1.5 percent of all households receive it) but among those that do receive it, it represents a relatively high share (20 percent) of income. Households that are systematically discriminated against in the allocation of social assistance are urban households living outside the capital (Riga) and those headed by male adults. Third, he looks at the regional allocation of social assistance. The results confirm earlier findings of large horizontal inequalities - that people with the same income from different parts of the country are treated unequally, because the existing system is based on local financing of social assistance. This paper - a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group - is part of the Latvia Poverty Assistance Report (February 2000). The author may be contacted at bmilanovicworldbank.org
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    The Middle Class Consensus and Economic Development (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (48 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Easterly, William The Middle Class Consensus and Economic Development
    Keywords: Class Polarization ; Cross-Country Data ; Cross-Country Differences ; Cross-Country Income ; Development Outcomes ; Development Successes ; Economic Development ; Economic Growth ; Emerging Markets ; Exogenous Country Characteristics ; Human Capital ; Income ; Income Differences ; Inequality ; Inequality ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Middle Class ; Middle Class Consensus ; Political Community ; Political Economy ; Political Economy ; Political Instability ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Resource Endowments ; Social Conflict ; Class Polarization ; Cross-Country Data ; Cross-Country Differences ; Cross-Country Income ; Development Outcomes ; Development Successes ; Economic Development ; Economic Growth ; Emerging Markets ; Exogenous Country Characteristics ; Human Capital ; Income ; Income Differences ; Inequality ; Inequality ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Middle Class ; Middle Class Consensus ; Political Community ; Political Economy ; Political Economy ; Political Instability ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Resource Endowments ; Social Conflict
    Abstract: May 2000 - A higher share of income for the middle class and lower ethnic polarization are empirically associated with higher income, higher growth, more education, better health, better infrastructure, better economic policies, less political instability, less civil war (putting ethnic minorities at risk), more social modernization, and more democracy. Modern political economy stresses society's polarization as a determinant of development outcomes. Among the most common forms of social conflict are class polarization and ethnic polarization. A middle class consensus is defined as a high share of income for the middle class and a low degree of ethnic polarization. A middle class consensus distinguishes development successes from failures. A theoretical model shows how groups- distinguished by class or ethnicity - will under-invest in human capital and infrastructure when there is leakage to another group. Easterly links the existence of a middle class consensus to exogenous country characteristics such as resource endowments, along the lines of the provocative thesis of Engerman and Sokoloff 1997 that tropical commodity exporters are more unequal than other societies. Easterly confirms this hypothesis with cross-country data. This makes it possible to use resource endowments as instruments for inequality. A higher share of income for the middle class and lower ethnic polarization are empirically associated with higher income, higher growth, more education, better health, better infrastructure, better economic policies, less political instability, less civil war (putting ethnic minorities at risk), more social modernization, and more democracy. This paper - a product of Macroeconomics and Growth, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to study the determinants of growth. The author may be contacted at weasterlyworldbank.org
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    Marginal Willingness to Pay for Education and the Determinants of Enrollment in Mexico (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (28 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Salinas, Angel Marginal Willingness to Pay for Education and the Determinants of Enrollment in Mexico
    Keywords: Education ; Education ; Education Facilities ; Education for All ; Educational Expenditure ; Educational Expenditures ; Educational Levels ; Educational Policy ; Educational Reforms ; Educational Services ; Effective Schools and Teachers ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Gender ; Gender and Education ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Population Policies ; Poverty Reduction ; Primary Education ; Primary Level ; Private Schools ; Public Schools ; Public Sector Management and Reform ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; School ; School Attendance ; School Enrollment ; School Fees ; School Level ; School Quality ; Schooling ; Secondary Education ; Secondary School ; Tertiary Education ; Textbooks ; Education ; Education ; Education Facilities ; Education for All ; Educational Expenditure ; Educational Expenditures ; Educational Levels ; Educational Policy ; Educational Reforms ; Educational Services ; Effective Schools and Teachers ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Gender ; Gender and Education ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Population Policies ; Poverty Reduction ; Primary Education ; Primary Level ; Private Schools ; Public Schools ; Public Sector Management and Reform ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; School ; School Attendance ; School Enrollment ; School Fees ; School Level ; School Quality ; Schooling ; Secondary Education ; Secondary School ; Tertiary Education ; Textbooks
    Abstract: July 2000 - The best way to increase school enrollment in Mexico is to successfully target public spending on education to poor households. Currently, nonpoor households in urban areas get much of the subsidy benefit from the government provision of education services. Standard benefit-incidence analysis assumes that the subsidy and quality of education services are the same for all income deciles. This strong assumption tends to minimize the distributional inequity at various education levels. Using a new approach emphasizing marginal willingness to pay for education, Lopez-Acevedo and Salinas analyze the impact of public spending on the education spending behavior of the average household. They address several questions: What would an average household with a given set of characteristics be willing to spend on an individual child with given traits if subsidized public education facilities were unavailable? What would the household have saved by sending the child to public school rather than private school? How great are these savings for various income groups? What are the determinants of enrollment by income group and by location? How do individuals' education expenditures affect enrollment patterns? Among their findings: · The nonpoor households in urban areas get much of the subsidy, or savings, from government provision of education services. · The wealthy value private education more than the poor do. · Differences in school quality are greater at the primary level. In other words, wealthy households get the lion's share of benefits from public spending on education. Household school enrollment and transition to the next level of schooling depend heavily on the cost of schooling, how far the head of the household went in school, the per capita household income, and the housing facilities or services. But the government's effort also affects the probability of enrollment and transition. The probability of enrollment is much higher for the 40 percent of higher-income households in urban areas than it is for the 40 percent of lower-income households in rural areas. The best way to increase school enrollment is to successfully target public spending on education to poor households. This paper-a product of the Economic Policy Sector Unit and the Mexico Country Office, Latin America and the Caribbean Region-is part of a strategy to reduce poverty and inequality in Mexico. The study was part of the research project Earnings Inequality after Mexico's Economic Reforms. The authors may be contacted at gacevedoworldbank.org or asalinas@worldbank.org
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    The Regulation of Entry (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (54 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Porta, Rafael The Regulation of Entry
    Keywords: Barriers To Entry ; Economic Theories ; Economic Theory and Research ; Economies ; Efficiency ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Equity ; Externalities ; Information ; Interest ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Market Power ; Markets ; Need ; Outcomes ; Policies ; Public Sector Economics and Finance ; Public Sector Regulation ; Regulatory Regimes ; Social Protections and Labor ; Barriers To Entry ; Economic Theories ; Economic Theory and Research ; Economies ; Efficiency ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Equity ; Externalities ; Information ; Interest ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Market Power ; Markets ; Need ; Outcomes ; Policies ; Public Sector Economics and Finance ; Public Sector Regulation ; Regulatory Regimes ; Social Protections and Labor
    Abstract: August 2001 - New data show that countries that regulate the entry of new firms more heavily have greater corruption and larger unofficial economies, but not better quality goods. The evidence supports the view that regulating entry benefits politicians and bureaucrats. Djankov and his coauthors present new data on the regulation of the entry of start-up firms in 85 countries. The data cover the number of procedures, official time, and official costs that a start-up firm must bear before it can operate legally. The official costs of entry are extremely high in most countries. Countries that regulate entry more heavily have greater corruption and larger unofficial economies, but not better quality goods (public or private). Countries with more democratic and limited governments regulate entry more lightly. The evidence is inconsistent with public interest theories of regulation, but supports the public choice view that regulating entry benefits politicians and bureaucrats. This paper—a product of the Financial Sector Strategy and Policy Department—is part of a larger effort in the department to educate policymakers on the costs of regulation. The study was funded by the Bank's Research Support Budget under the research project "The Regulation of Small Businesses
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    Diversification and Efficiency of Investment by East Asian Corporations (1998)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (35 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Fan, H.P.Joseph Diversification and Efficiency of Investment by East Asian Corporations
    Keywords: Business Segment ; Business Segments ; Capital Market ; Capital Markets ; Companies ; Company ; Corporate Control ; Corporate Growth ; Corporation ; Corporations ; Debt Markets ; Diversification ; Economic Theory and Research ; Enterprises ; Expansion ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Firm ; Firm Size ; Firms ; Investment and Investment Climate ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Manufacturer ; Microfinance ; Poverty Reduction ; Pro-Poor Growth ; See ; Shop ; Small Firms ; Small Scale Enterprises ; Social Protections and Labor ; Business Segment ; Business Segments ; Capital Market ; Capital Markets ; Companies ; Company ; Corporate Control ; Corporate Growth ; Corporation ; Corporations ; Debt Markets ; Diversification ; Economic Theory and Research ; Enterprises ; Expansion ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Firm ; Firm Size ; Firms ; Investment and Investment Climate ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Manufacturer ; Microfinance ; Poverty Reduction ; Pro-Poor Growth ; See ; Shop ; Small Firms ; Small Scale Enterprises ; Social Protections and Labor
    Abstract: Firms in industrial countries are more likely to benefit from vertical integration and corporate diversification-learning faster and hence improving performance. Corporate diversification in less developed countries is more likely to lead to misallocation of capital. - The East Asian financial crisis has been attributed in part to the corporate diversification associated with the misallocation of capital investment toward less profitable and more risky business segments. Much anecdotal evidence to support this view has surfaced since the crisis but there was little discussion of it before the crisis. Quite the contrary: The rapid expansion of East Asian firms by entering new business segments was viewed as contributing to the East Asian miracle. Claessens, Djankov, Fan, and Lang examine the efficiency of investment by diversified corporations in nine East Asian countries, using unique panel data from more than 10,000 corporations for the pre-crisis period, 1991-96. They: ° Document the degree of diversification in the corporate sector in Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan (China), and Thailand, countries that have achieved enviable rates of economic growth over the past three decades. ° Distinguish between vertical and complementary diversification and study the differences across nine countries. ° Investigate whether diversification in East Asia has hurt economic efficiency. Their study tests the learning-by-doing and misallocation-of-capital hypotheses related to the types and degrees of diversification in East Asian countries. Firms in Indonesia, Korea, Taiwan, and Thailand appear to have suffered significant negative effects of vertical integration on short-term performance; the same countries gained significant short-term benefits from complementary expansion. The results suggest that the misallocation-of-capital hypothesis is appropriate for Korea and Malaysia; the learning-by-doinghypothesis for Indonesia, Taiwan, and Thailand. Firms in more developed countries succeed in vertically integrating and improve both short-term profitability and market valuation. Firms in more developed countries are ultimately more likely to benefit from such diversification (learn faster, to improve their performance). And diversification by firms in less developed countries is subject to more misallocation of capital. This paperis a product of the Economic Policy Unit, Finance, Private Sector, and Infrastructure Network
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    Household responses to poverty and vulnerability. Vol. 1, confronting crisis in Cisne Dos, Guayaquil, Ecuador (1997)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    ISBN: 0821338471 , 9780821338476
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (160 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Keywords: Access to Finance ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Population Policies ; Poverty Reduction ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Access to Finance ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Population Policies ; Poverty Reduction ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction
    Abstract: This case study presents the main findings from the community of Cisne Dos, in Guayaquil, Ecuador. The study explored how poor households respond to changes in economic circumstances and labor market conditions, what strategies they adopt to limit the impact of shocks and generate additional resources, and what constraints impede their actions. Three features distinguish this study from other poverty studies:a micro-level approach combining households and communities as the main units of analysis, an unusually long period of observation for some communities and households, and a comparative framework offering fours cases with very different economic development levels and institutional contexts. The study concludes with some priority recommendations for action:1) support households in their role as safety net; 2) alleviate constraints on women's labor supply; 3) ensure that social capital is not taken for granted; 4) develop social policy that integrates human capital and social capital; 5) pursue further research; and 6) develop tools and indicators to strengthen the assets of the poor
    URL: Volltext  (Deutschlandweit zugänglich)
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    MPI Ethno. Forsch.
  • 67
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    Foreign direct investment (1997)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    ISBN: 0821340506 , 9780821340509
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (128 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Keywords: Debt Markets ; Emerging Markets ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Foreign Direct Investment ; International Economics & Trade ; Investment and Investment Climate ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Private Sector Development ; Debt Markets ; Emerging Markets ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Foreign Direct Investment ; International Economics & Trade ; Investment and Investment Climate ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Private Sector Development
    Abstract: The report reviews lessons from the International Finance Corporation's (IFC) investment, and advisory experience in the developing world, which show the interactions between policy frameworks, and the volume and structure of foreign direct investments (FDI). Case studies show how the Corporation promotes successful project structures, and regulatory changes, as it tries to attain the strongest development impact for investments. In developing countries, FDI has flowed mainly into manufacturing, and processing industries. In the past, investment attractiveness had been closely linked to possession of natural resources, or a large domestic market, while production and trade globalization, competitiveness as a location for investment, and exporting, have become the main determinants of attractiveness. Sources of FDI in the past, came almost exclusively from industrial countries, though recently those sources have widened, emerging from developing countries in their own right, and for their own regions. IFC, as an international initiative to promote FDI in developing countries, is liable to promote bilateral trade agreements, bilateral and multilateral financial institutions, and investment promotion programs; its advisory role may vary from diagnostic studies overviewing constraints to FDI, to investment policy studies giving specific solutions on either changes, or strategies. The study further looks at how policy environment is set, and at finding investor opportunities, through project financing, largely structured as joint ventures. The inherent, fragile nature of joint ventures, restricts foreign ownership, thus limiting project structures; however, careful project design has lead to successful operations, by ensuring management, and financial arrangements. Still, to maximize benefits, an unfinished agenda of policy reform remains, and, as more countries open to FDI, this integration will lead to an overall increase in FDI flows
    URL: Volltext  (Deutschlandweit zugänglich)
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    MPI Ethno. Forsch.
  • 68
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    Bibliography of publications : Technical Department, Africa Region, July 1987 to April 1996 (1996)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    ISBN: 0821336967 , 9780821336960
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (72 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Keywords: Banks and Banking Reform ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Population Policies ; Rural Development Knowledge and Information Systems ; Banks and Banking Reform ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Population Policies ; Rural Development Knowledge and Information Systems
    Abstract: This Bibliography of Publications of the Technical Department, Africa Region of the World Bank makes available a complete list of all formal and informal publications produced by the staff and consultants of the Africa Technical Department from July 1987 through April 1996. The publications cover the Technical Department's work in Africa in all sectors
    URL: Volltext  (Deutschlandweit zugänglich)
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    MPI Ethno. Forsch.
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