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  • 1995-1999  (41)
  • Washington, D.C : The World Bank  (41)
  • Berlin
  • Bielefeld : transcript
  • Cham : Springer International Publishing
  • Health, Nutrition and Population  (41)
  • 1
    Online Resource
    Online Resource
    Subjective Economic Welfare (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (43 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Ravallion, Martin Subjective Economic Welfare
    Keywords: Bank ; Calculation ; Consumer ; Consumers ; Demand ; Demands ; Economic Theory and Research ; Family Allowances ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Household Incomes ; Income ; Incomes ; Inequality ; Inflation ; Information ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Money ; Pensioner ; Population Policies ; Poverty Diagnostics ; Poverty Lines ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Rate ; Poverty Reduction ; Property ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Spending ; Unemployment ; Welfare ; Bank ; Calculation ; Consumer ; Consumers ; Demand ; Demands ; Economic Theory and Research ; Family Allowances ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Household Incomes ; Income ; Incomes ; Inequality ; Inflation ; Information ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Money ; Pensioner ; Population Policies ; Poverty Diagnostics ; Poverty Lines ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Rate ; Poverty Reduction ; Property ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Spending ; Unemployment ; Welfare
    Abstract: April 1999 - As conventionally measured, current household income relative to a poverty line can only partially explain how Russian adults perceive their economic welfare. Other factors include past incomes, individual incomes, household consumption, current unemployment, risk of unemployment, health status, education, and relative income in the area of residence. Paradoxically, when economists analyze a policy's impact on welfare they typically assume that people are the best judges of their own welfare, yet resist directly asking them if they are better off. Early ideas of utility were explicitly subjective, but modern economists generally ignore people's expressed views about their own welfare. Even using a broad set of conventional socioeconomic data may not reflect well people's subjective perceptions of their poverty. Ravallion and Lokshin examine the determinants of subjective economic welfare in Russia, including its relationship to conventional objective indicators. For data on subjective perceptions, they use survey responses in which respondents rate their level of welfare from poor to rich on a nine-point ladder. As an objective indicator of economic welfare, they use the most common poverty indicator in Russia today, in which household incomes are deflated by household-specific poverty lines. They find that Russian adults with higher family income per equivalent adult are less likely to place themselves on the lowest rungs of the subjective ladder and more likely to put themselves on the upper rungs. But current household income does not explain well self-reported assessments of whether someone is poor or rich. Expanding the set of variables to include incomes at different dates, expenditures, educational attainment, health status, employment, and average income in the area of residence doubles explanatory power. Healthier and better educated adults with jobs perceive themselves to be better off, controlling for income. The unemployed view their welfare as lower, even with full income replacement. Individual income matters independent of per capita household income. Relative income also matters. Living in a richer area lowers perceived economic welfare, controlling for income and other factors. This paper-a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group-is part of a larger effort in the group to better understand the relationship between objective and subjective economic welfare. The study was funded by the Bank's Research Support Budget under the research project Policies for Poor Areas (RPO 681-39). The authors may be contacted at mravallionworldbank.org or mlokshin@worldbank.org
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  • 2
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    Assessing the Impact of Micro-credit on Poverty and Vulnerability in Bangladesh (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (54 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Zaman, Hassan Assessing the Impact of Micro-credit on Poverty and Vulnerability in Bangladesh
    Keywords: Access To Cred Bank ; Banks and Banking Reform ; Borrowers ; Borrowing ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Cred Household Expenditure ; Debt Markets ; Economic Theory and Research ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Intermediation ; Financial Literacy ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Illiteracy ; Income ; Income Sources ; Investing ; Knowledge ; Loan ; Loan Period ; Loans ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Population Policies ; Poverty Reduction ; Risk Reduction ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Senior ; Student ; Supply ; Welfare ; Access To Cred Bank ; Banks and Banking Reform ; Borrowers ; Borrowing ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Cred Household Expenditure ; Debt Markets ; Economic Theory and Research ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Intermediation ; Financial Literacy ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Illiteracy ; Income ; Income Sources ; Investing ; Knowledge ; Loan ; Loan Period ; Loans ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Population Policies ; Poverty Reduction ; Risk Reduction ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Senior ; Student ; Supply ; Welfare
    Abstract: July 1999 - While micro-credit interventions can play an important role in reducing vulnerability through a number of channels, a significant impact on poverty reduction is achieved under more restrictive conditions. These conditions revolve around whether the borrower has crossed a cumulative loan threshold and on how poor the household is to start with. Zaman examines the extent to which micro-credit reduces poverty and vulnerability through a case study of BRAC, one of the largest providers of micro-credit to the poor in Bangladesh. Household consumption data collected from 1,072 households is used to show that the largest effect on poverty arises when a moderate-poor BRAC loanee borrows more that 10,000 taka (US
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  • 3
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    Social Capital and the State : Complementarity and Substitution (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (60 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Narayan, Deepa Social Capital and the State
    Keywords: Civil Society ; Civil Society Organizations ; Community ; Community Development and Empowerment ; Corruption ; Disability ; Economic Development ; Education ; Education and Society ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Full Participation ; Governance ; Governance ; Governance Indicators ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Human Development ; Income ; Indicators ; Institutions ; National Governance ; Participation ; Policy Implications ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Service ; Service Delivery ; Social Activities ; Social Capital ; Social Cohesion ; Social Development ; Social Development ; Social Groups ; Social Inclusion and Institutions ; Social Justice ; Social Protections and Labor ; Civil Society ; Civil Society Organizations ; Community ; Community Development and Empowerment ; Corruption ; Disability ; Economic Development ; Education ; Education and Society ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Full Participation ; Governance ; Governance ; Governance Indicators ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Human Development ; Income ; Indicators ; Institutions ; National Governance ; Participation ; Policy Implications ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Service ; Service Delivery ; Social Activities ; Social Capital ; Social Cohesion ; Social Development ; Social Development ; Social Groups ; Social Inclusion and Institutions ; Social Justice ; Social Protections and Labor
    Abstract: August 1999 - Whatever their nature, interventions to reduce poverty should be designed not only to have an immediate impact on poverty, but also to foster a rich network of cross-cutting ties within society and between society's formal and informal institutions. Using the lens of social capital - especially bridging or cross-cutting ties that cut across social groups and between social groups and government - provides new insights into policy design. Solidarity within social groups creates ties (bonding social capital) that bring people and resources together. In unequal societies, ties that cut across groups (bridging social capital) are essential for social cohesion and for poverty reduction. The nature of interaction between state and society is characterized as complementarity and substitution. When states are functional, the informal and formal work well together - for example, government support for community-based development. When states become dysfunctional, the informal institutions become a substitute and are reduced to serving a defensive or survival function. To move toward economic and social well-being, states must support inclusive development. Investments in the organizational capacity of the poor are critical. Interventions are also required to foster bridging ties across social groups - ethnic, religious, caste, or racial groups. Such interventions can stem from the state, private sector, or civil society and include: ° Changes in rules to include groups previously excluded from formal systems of finance, education, and governance, at all levels. ° Political pluralism and citizenship rights. ° Fairness before the law for all social groups. ° Availability of public spaces that bring social groups together. ° Infrastructure that eases communication. ° Education, media, and public information policies that reinforce norms and values of tolerance and diversity. This paper - a product of the Poverty Division, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network - is part of a larger effort in the network to understand the role of social capital. The author may be contacted at dnarayanworldbank.org
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  • 4
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    Seeking Votes : The Political Economy of Expenditures by the Peruvian Social Fund (FONCODES), 1991-95 (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (36 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Schady, Norbert Seeking Votes
    Keywords: Allocation ; Business Cycles ; Business Environment ; Business in Development ; Competitiveness and Competition Policy ; Data On Expenditures ; Data Requirements ; Debt Markets ; Discretionary Funds ; Distribution Of Expenditures ; E-Government ; Econometric Techniques ; Expenditures ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Governance ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Outcomes ; Parliamentary Government ; Politicians ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Public Expenditure ; Public Expenditures ; Public Sector Development ; Public Sector Expenditure Analysis and Management ; Social Expenditures ; Social Funds ; Social Policy ; Social Programs ; Social Services ; Stated Objectives ; Structural Adjustment ; Allocation ; Business Cycles ; Business Environment ; Business in Development ; Competitiveness and Competition Policy ; Data On Expenditures ; Data Requirements ; Debt Markets ; Discretionary Funds ; Distribution Of Expenditures ; E-Government ; Econometric Techniques ; Expenditures ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Governance ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Outcomes ; Parliamentary Government ; Politicians ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Public Expenditure ; Public Expenditures ; Public Sector Development ; Public Sector Expenditure Analysis and Management ; Social Expenditures ; Social Funds ; Social Policy ; Social Programs ; Social Services ; Stated Objectives ; Structural Adjustment
    Abstract: A revised version was published as The Political Economy of Expenditures by the Peruvian Social Fund (FONCODES), 1991-95. American Political Science Review 94 (2, June): 289-304, 2000. - As the literature on political influences on the allocation of discretionary funds predicts, spending by the Peruvian Social Fund, FONCODES, increased significantly before elections. FONCODES projects were also directed at provinces where the marginal political impact of expenditures was likely to be greatest. President Alberto Fujimori created the Peruvian Social Fund (FONCODES) in 1991 with the stated objectives of generating employment, helping to alleviate poverty, and improving access to social services. Schady uses province-level data on monthly expenditures, socioeconomic indicators, and electoral outcomes to analyze political influences on the timing and geographic distribution of FONCODES expenditures between 1991 and 1995. He finds that: ° FONCODES expenditures increased significantly before elections. ° FONCODES projects were directed at poor provinces, as well as provinces in which the marginal political impact of expenditures was likely to be greatest. The results are robust to many specifications and controls. The Peruvian data thus support predictions made in the literature on political business cycles as well as the literature on political influences on the allocation of discretionary funds. This paper - a product of the Poverty Division, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network - is part of a larger effort in the network to understand the functioning and impact of social funds
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  • 5
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    Ethnic Partition as a Solution to Ethnic War : An Empirical Critique of the Theoretical Literature (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (42 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Sambanis, Nicholas Ethnic Partition as a Solution to Ethnic War
    Keywords: Agreement ; Alliances ; Atrocities ; Children and Youth ; Civil War ; Civil Wars ; Conflict ; Conflict and Development ; Constraints ; Economy ; Genocide ; Hazard Risk Management ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Human Rights ; International Affairs ; International Community ; Negotiated Settlement ; Peace ; Peace and Peacekeeping ; Polarization ; Population Policies ; Post Conflict Reconstruction ; Post Conflict Reintegration ; Rebels ; Reconciliation ; Reconstruction ; Urban Development ; Violence ; Violent Conflict ; War ; Agreement ; Alliances ; Atrocities ; Children and Youth ; Civil War ; Civil Wars ; Conflict ; Conflict and Development ; Constraints ; Economy ; Genocide ; Hazard Risk Management ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Human Rights ; International Affairs ; International Community ; Negotiated Settlement ; Peace ; Peace and Peacekeeping ; Polarization ; Population Policies ; Post Conflict Reconstruction ; Post Conflict Reintegration ; Rebels ; Reconciliation ; Reconstruction ; Urban Development ; Violence ; Violent Conflict ; War
    Abstract: October 1999 - Partition theorists argue that when violent ethnic conflict is intense, civil politics cannot be restored unless ethnic groups are demographically separated into defensible enclaves. The empirical evidence suggests otherwise. Some theorists of ethnic conflict argue that the physical separation of warring ethnic groups may be the only possible solution to civil war. Without territorial partition and (if needed) forced population movements, they argue, ethnic war cannot end and genocide is likely. Other scholars have counterargued that partition only replaces internal war with international war, creates undemocratic successor states, and generates tremendous human suffering. So far this debate has been informed by few important case studies. Sambanis uses a new set of data on civil wars to identify the main determinants of ethnic partitions and to estimate their impact on the probability of war's recurrence, on low-grade ethnic violence, and on the political institutions of successor states. Sambanis's analysis is the first large-sample quantitative analysis of the subject, testing the propositions of partition theory and weighing heavily on the side of its critics. He shows that almost all the assertions of partition theorists fail to pass rigorous empirical tests. He finds that, on average, partition does not significantly reduce the probability of new violence. A better strategy might be to combine ethnic groups, but most important is to establish credible and equitable systems of governance. It is also important not to load the strategy with subjective premises about the necessity of ethnically pure states and about the futility of interethnic cooperation. This paper - a product of Public Economics, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to study the economics of civil wars. The author may be contacted at nsambanisworldbank.org〉
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  • 6
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    Who Avoids and Who Escapes from Poverty during the Transition? : Evidence from Polish Panel Data, 1993 96 (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (60 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Okrasa, Wlodzimierz Who Avoids and Who Escapes from Poverty during the Transition?
    Keywords: Chronic Poverty ; Employment Income ; Farm Self-Employment ; Food Consumption ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Budget ; Household Income ; Household Welfare ; Human Capital ; Human Development ; Idiosyncratic Shocks ; Income ; Income Inequality ; Measures ; Poor ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Line ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction Strategy ; Rural ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Unemployment ; Chronic Poverty ; Employment Income ; Farm Self-Employment ; Food Consumption ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Budget ; Household Income ; Household Welfare ; Human Capital ; Human Development ; Idiosyncratic Shocks ; Income ; Income Inequality ; Measures ; Poor ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Line ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction Strategy ; Rural ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Unemployment
    Abstract: November 1999 - There is a tendency toward chronic, long-term poverty in Poland. Most at risk: larger households, farm households, and households dependent on social welfare. Least at risk: households of employees or the self-employed, educated households, households headed by pensioners, households that are part of kinship networks, and households with liquid assets, durables, or access to financial resources. Among those who missed out on the benefits of the first phase of economic prosperity, children are overrepresented. Okrasa uses four-year panel data from Poland's Household Budget Survey to explore the distinction between transitory and long-term poverty, a crucial distinction in designing and evaluating poverty reduction strategies. Okrasa analyzes household welfare trajectories during the period 1993-96, to identify the long-term poor and to determine how relevant household asset endowments are as determinants of household poverty and vulnerability over time. He concludes that the chronically poor constitute a distinct and separate segment of the population, with low turnover. Among specific observations about factors that affect Poland's long-term poverty: · Variables in human capital significantly affected the pattern of repeated poverty and vulnerability. Larger households tended to experience poverty and vulnerability, mostly because they contained more children or other dependents. Households with elderly members and those headed by older people, by women rather than men, and by educated people of either gender were least likely to be poor. Poverty was unaffected by the presence of a disabled person in the household. · Households with liquid assets or durables, or with access to financial resources, were less likely to be poor and vulnerable. Households appeared to take advantage of credit and loans to maintain their current level of consumption rather than to augment their stock of assets. · Households that were part of kinship networks were less at risk of falling into chronic poverty or vulnerability. · Households headed by pensioners were least in danger of impoverishment. Those most in danger were farm households (including mixed households headed by workers with an agricultural holding) and households heavily dependent on social welfare. · Households of employees were better off than self-employed households when income-based measures of poverty were used but not when consumption-based measures were used. Neither group was significantly vulnerable. This paper - a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to study the dynamics of poverty and the effectiveness of the safety net. The author may be contacted at wokrasaworldbank.org
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  • 7
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    Labor Market Integration in the Presence of Social Capital (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (32 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Schiff, Maurice Labor Market Integration in the Presence of Social Capital
    Keywords: Bonds ; Capital ; Cred Economic Performance ; Debt Markets ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Equilibrium ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Free Trade ; Goods ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Human Capital ; Labor Markets ; Labor Policies ; Liquidity ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Markets and Market Access ; Negative Externalities ; Population Policies ; Private Sector Development ; Production Function ; Production Functions ; Public Good ; Social Capital ; Social Development ; Social Protections and Labor ; Trade Barriers ; Transactions Costs ; Transport ; Transport Economics, Policy and Planning ; Unemployment ; Utility ; Utility Function ; Voters ; Welfare ; Bonds ; Capital ; Cred Economic Performance ; Debt Markets ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Equilibrium ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Free Trade ; Goods ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Human Capital ; Labor Markets ; Labor Policies ; Liquidity ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Markets and Market Access ; Negative Externalities ; Population Policies ; Private Sector Development ; Production Function ; Production Functions ; Public Good ; Social Capital ; Social Development ; Social Protections and Labor ; Trade Barriers ; Transactions Costs ; Transport ; Transport Economics, Policy and Planning ; Unemployment ; Utility ; Utility Function ; Voters ; Welfare
    Abstract: November 1999 - Social capital raises productivity and falls with labor mobility. Because labor mobility generates a negative externality, integration of labor markets results in too much mobility, too low a level of social capital, and an ambiguous effect on welfare. Trade liberalization is superior to labor market integration because it reduces mobility and the negative externality associated with it. Labor market integration is typically assumed to improve welfare in the absence of distortions, because it allows labor to move to where returns are highest. Schiff examines this result in a simple general equilibrium model in the presence of a common property resource: social capital. Drawing on evidence that social capital raises productivity and falls with labor mobility, Schiff's main findings are that: · Labor market integration imposes a negative externality and need not raise welfare. · The welfare impact is more beneficial (or less harmful) the greater the difference in endowments is between the integrating regions. · Whether positive or negative, the welfare impact is larger the more similar the levels of social capital of the integrating regions are and the lower the migration costs are. · Trade liberalization generates an additional benefit-over and above the standard gains from trade - by reducing labor mobility and the negative externality associated with it. Trade liberalization is superior to labor market integration. · The creation of new private or public institutions in response to labor market integration may reduce welfare. Schiff shows that the welfare implications depend on two parameters of the model, the curvature of the utility function and the cost of private migration. This paper - a product of Trade, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to understand the link between market performance and welfare. The author may be contacted at mschiffworldbank.org
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  • 8
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    Do School Facilities Matter? : The Case of the Peruvian Social Fund (FONCODES) (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (40 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Schady, Norbert Do School Facilities Matter?
    Keywords: Access To Schooling ; Attendance Rate ; Attendance Rates ; Classrooms ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Disability ; Education ; Education ; Education for All ; Educational Infrastructure ; Educational Inputs ; Educational Outcomes ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Gender ; Gender and Education ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Illiteracy ; Investments In Education ; Population Policies ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Reduction ; Primary Education ; Public School ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Sanitation ; School ; School Attendance ; School Breakfast ; School Facilities ; School Level ; Schoolchildren ; Social Protections and Labor ; Tertiary Education ; Textbooks ; Values ; Access To Schooling ; Attendance Rate ; Attendance Rates ; Classrooms ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Disability ; Education ; Education ; Education for All ; Educational Infrastructure ; Educational Inputs ; Educational Outcomes ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Gender ; Gender and Education ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Illiteracy ; Investments In Education ; Population Policies ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Reduction ; Primary Education ; Public School ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Sanitation ; School ; School Attendance ; School Breakfast ; School Facilities ; School Level ; Schoolchildren ; Social Protections and Labor ; Tertiary Education ; Textbooks ; Values
    Abstract: A revised version was published as The Allocation and Impact of Social Funds: Spending on School Infrastructure in Peru (with Christina Paxson). World Bank Economic Review 16 (2): 297-319, 2002. - Education projects of the Peruvian Social Fund (FONCODES) have reached poor districts and, to the extent they live in those districts, poor households. FONCODES has had a positive effect on school attendance rates for young children, but not on the likelihood that children will be at an appropriate school level for their age. Since its creation in 1991, the Peruvian Social Fund (FONCODES) has spent about US
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  • 9
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    Sources of Ethnic Inequality in Vietnam (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (38 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Walle, devan Dominique Sources of Ethnic Inequality in Vietnam
    Keywords: Agricultural Knowledge and Information Systems ; Agriculture ; Basic Infrastructure ; Cash Crops ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Debt Markets ; Development Policies ; Disability ; Discrimination ; Ethnic Groups ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Health Care ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Ill-Health ; Income Inequality ; Indigenous Practices ; Knowledge ; Land Tenure ; Large Population ; Living Standards ; Minority ; Policies ; Policy ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Public Services ; Rural Areas ; Rural Development ; Rural Development ; Rural Development Knowledge and Information Systems ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Social Protections and Labor ; Urban Development ; Urban Housing ; Agricultural Knowledge and Information Systems ; Agriculture ; Basic Infrastructure ; Cash Crops ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Debt Markets ; Development Policies ; Disability ; Discrimination ; Ethnic Groups ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Health Care ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Ill-Health ; Income Inequality ; Indigenous Practices ; Knowledge ; Land Tenure ; Large Population ; Living Standards ; Minority ; Policies ; Policy ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Public Services ; Rural Areas ; Rural Development ; Rural Development ; Rural Development Knowledge and Information Systems ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Social Protections and Labor ; Urban Development ; Urban Housing
    Abstract: March 2000 - To redress ethnic inequality in Vietnam, it is not enough to target poor areas. Policies must be designed to reach minority households in poor areas, to open up options by ensuring that minority groups are not disadvantaged (in labor markets, for example), to change the conditions that have caused their isolation and social exclusion, and to explicitly recognize behavior patterns (including compensating behavior) that have served the minorities well but intensify ethnic inequalities in the longer term. Vietnam's ethnic minorities, who tend to live mostly in remote rural areas, typically have lower living standards than the ethnic majority. How much is this because of differences in economic characteristics (such as education levels and land) rather than low returns to characteristics? Is there a self-reinforcing culture of poverty in the minority groups, reflecting patterns of past discrimination? Van de Walle and Gunewardena find that differences in levels of living are due in part to the fact that the minorities live in less productive areas characterized by difficult terrain, poor infrastructure, less access to off-farm work and the market economy, and inferior access to education. Geographic disparities tend to persist because of immobility and regional differences in living standards. But the authors also find large differences within geographical areas even after controlling for household characteristics. They find differences in returns to productive characteristics to be the most important explanation for ethnic inequality. But the minorities do not obtain lower returns to all characteristics. There is evidence of compensating behavior. For example, pure returns to location - even in remote, inhospitable areas - tend to be higher for minorities, though not high enough to overcome the large consumption difference with the majority. The majority ethnic group's model of income generation is a poor guide on how to fight poverty among ethnic minority groups. Nor is it enough to target poor areas to redress ethnic inequality. Policies must be designed to reach minority households in poor areas and to explicitly recognize behavior patterns (including compensating behavior) that have served the minorities well in the short term but intensify ethnic inequalities in the longer term. It will be important to open up options for minority groups both by ensuring that they are not disadvantaged (in labor markets, for example), and by changing the conditions that have caused their isolation and social exclusion. This paper - a product of Public Economics and Rural Development, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to understand the determinants of poverty and the policy implications. Dominique van de Walle may be contacted at dvandewalleworldbank.org
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  • 10
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    Algorithms for Purchasing AIDS Vaccines (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (38 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Bishai, David Algorithms for Purchasing AIDS Vaccines
    Keywords: AIDS HIV ; Bereavement ; Children ; Disease Control and Prevention ; Drug Users ; Epidemiology ; Families ; Health Care ; Health Monitoring and Evaluation ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Hepatitis B ; Hygiene ; Influenza ; Morbidity ; Patient ; Patients ; People ; Public Health ; Risk Groups ; Sex Workers ; Strategy ; Vaccination ; Victims ; Workers ; AIDS HIV ; Bereavement ; Children ; Disease Control and Prevention ; Drug Users ; Epidemiology ; Families ; Health Care ; Health Monitoring and Evaluation ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Hepatitis B ; Hygiene ; Influenza ; Morbidity ; Patient ; Patients ; People ; Public Health ; Risk Groups ; Sex Workers ; Strategy ; Vaccination ; Victims ; Workers
    Abstract: April 2000 - Demand for AIDS vaccines varies by level of risk and by national wealth. At-risk individuals in poor countries suffer on both counts. Providing funds to develop and distribute AIDS vaccines should be a global concern. Bishai, Lin, and Kiyonga delineate two different algorithms for the purchase of AIDS vaccines, to show how differences in policy objectives can greatly affect projections of the number of courses of vaccine that will be needed. They consider a hypothetical vaccine costing
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  • 11
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    How Urban Concentration Affects Economic Growth (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (48 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Henderson, Vernon How Urban Concentration Affects Economic Growth
    Keywords: Capital ; Consumers ; Costs ; Development ; Economic Efficiency ; Economic Geography ; Economic Growth ; Economic Theory and Research ; Economies Of Scale ; Economy ; Emerging Markets ; Externalities ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; GDP ; GDP Per Capita ; Goods ; Growth Rate ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Income ; Industrialization ; Inequality ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Marginal Benefits ; Markets ; Population Policies ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Social Protections and Labor ; Telecommunications ; Transactions Costs ; Transport ; Transport Economics, Policy and Planning ; Urban Development Policies and Strategies ; Urban Housing and Land ; Capital ; Consumers ; Costs ; Development ; Economic Efficiency ; Economic Geography ; Economic Growth ; Economic Theory and Research ; Economies Of Scale ; Economy ; Emerging Markets ; Externalities ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; GDP ; GDP Per Capita ; Goods ; Growth Rate ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Income ; Industrialization ; Inequality ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Marginal Benefits ; Markets ; Population Policies ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Social Protections and Labor ; Telecommunications ; Transactions Costs ; Transport ; Transport Economics, Policy and Planning ; Urban Development Policies and Strategies ; Urban Housing and Land
    Abstract: April 2000 - If urban overconcentration really is an issue, it ought to affect economic growth rates in a robust, consistent fashion. And it does. Not only is there an optimal degree of urban concentration that varies with country income, but departures from optimal concentration result in substantial growth losses. Overconcentrated countries can reduce concentration by investing in interregional transport infrastructure - in particular, increasing the density of road networks. Henderson explores the issue of urban overconcentration econometrically, using data from a panel of 80 to 100 countries every 5 years from 1960 to 1995. He finds the following: · At any level of development there is indeed a best degree of national urban concentration. It increases sharply as income rises, up to a per capita income of about
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  • 12
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    Sex Workers and the Cost of Safe Sex : The Compensating Differential for Condom Use in Calcutta (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (24 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Lokshin, Michael Sex Workers and the Cost of Safe Sex
    Keywords: AIDS HIV ; Adolescent Health ; Aids ; Aids Crisis ; Commercial Sex ; Commercial Sex Workers ; Condom Use ; Condoms ; Gender ; Gender and Health ; Health Monitoring and Evaluation ; Health Services ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Heterosexual Sex ; High Risk Of Infection ; High-Risk ; Infections ; National Aids Control ; Population Policies ; Risk Behavior ; Safe Sex ; Sex ; Sex Partners ; Sex Practices ; Sex Workers ; Sexual Partners ; Young Adults ; AIDS HIV ; Adolescent Health ; Aids ; Aids Crisis ; Commercial Sex ; Commercial Sex Workers ; Condom Use ; Condoms ; Gender ; Gender and Health ; Health Monitoring and Evaluation ; Health Services ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Heterosexual Sex ; High Risk Of Infection ; High-Risk ; Infections ; National Aids Control ; Population Policies ; Risk Behavior ; Safe Sex ; Sex ; Sex Partners ; Sex Practices ; Sex Workers ; Sexual Partners ; Young Adults
    Abstract: May 2000 - Prostitution is often called the world's oldest profession, yet economists almost never study it. The practice of safe sex by commercial sex workers is considered central to preventing the transmission of AIDS in developing countries - yet sex workers in Calcutta who regularly use condoms suffer a 79 percent loss in their average earnings per sex act. The practice of safe sex by commercial sex workers is considered central to preventing the transmission of AIDS in developing countries. Rao, Gupta, and Jana estimate the compensating differential for condom use among sex workers in Calcutta, based on results from a survey conducted in 1993. If, as suggested by anecdotal evidence, this loss in income is large, it would indicate the existence of strong disincentives for practicing safe sex. To identify the relationship between condom use and the average price per sex act, they follow an instrumental variable approach, exploiting an intervention program focused on providing information about the AIDS virus and about safe sex practices. The program, instituted in 1992, was not systematically administered. Using this method, they found that sex workers who always use condoms face a loss of 79 percent in the average earnings per sex act. This paper - a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to understand the behavior underlying HIV/AIDS transmission. Vijayendra Rao may be contacted at vraoworldbank.org
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  • 13
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    Terror as a Bargaining Instrument : A Case Study of Dowry Violence in Rural India (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (36 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Rao, Vijayendra Terror as a Bargaining Instrument
    Keywords: Adolescent Health ; Benef Children ; Divorce ; Domestic Violence ; Families ; Family ; Females ; Gender ; Gender and Law ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Home ; House ; Husband ; Husbands ; Law and Development ; Marriage ; Marriages ; Sanctions ; Social Development ; Social Inclusion and Institutions ; Wedding ; Wife ; Will ; Wives ; Woman ; Women ; Adolescent Health ; Benef Children ; Divorce ; Domestic Violence ; Families ; Family ; Females ; Gender ; Gender and Law ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Home ; House ; Husband ; Husbands ; Law and Development ; Marriage ; Marriages ; Sanctions ; Social Development ; Social Inclusion and Institutions ; Wedding ; Wife ; Will ; Wives ; Woman ; Women
    Abstract: May 2000 - Some aspects of violent behavior are linked to economic incentives and deserve more attention from economists. In India, for example, domestic violence is used as a bargaining instrument, to extract larger dowries from a wife's family, after the marriage has taken place. Bloch and Rao examine how domestic violence may be used as a bargaining instrument, to extract larger dowries from a spouse's family. The phrase dowry violence refers not to the dowry paid at the time of the wedding, but to additional payments demanded by the groom's family after the marriage. The additional dowry is often paid to stop the husband from systematically beating the wife. Bloch and Rao base their case study of three villages in southern India on qualitative and survey data. Based on the ethnographic evidence, they develop a noncooper-ative bargaining and signaling model of dowries and domestic violence. They test the predictions from those models on survey data. They find that women whose families pay smaller dowries suffer increased risk of marital violence. So do women who come from richer families (from whom resources can more easily be extracted). Larger dowries - as well as greater satisfaction with the marriage (in the form of more male children) - reduce the probability of violence. In India marriage is almost never a matter of choice for women, but is driven almost entirely by social norms and parental preferences. Providing opportunities for women outside of marriage and the marriage market would significantly improve their well-being by allowing them to leave an abusive husband, or find a way of bribing him to stop the abuse, or present a credible threat, which has the same effect. This paper - a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to examine crime and violence in developing countries. Vijayendra Rao may be contacted at vraoworldbank.org
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  • 14
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    What Can We Learn about Country Performance from Conditional Comparisons across Countries? (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (26 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Ravallion, Martin What Can We Learn about Country Performance from Conditional Comparisons across Countries?
    Keywords: Crime and Society ; Developing Countries ; Development Assistance ; Development Policy ; Dissemination ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Health Care ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Human Development ; Income Inequality ; Inequality ; Infant ; Infant Mortality ; Knowledge ; Level Of Poverty ; Life Expectancy ; Policy Discussions ; Policy Implications ; Population ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Practitioners ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Development ; Social Policies ; Social Services ; Crime and Society ; Developing Countries ; Development Assistance ; Development Policy ; Dissemination ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Health Care ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Human Development ; Income Inequality ; Inequality ; Infant ; Infant Mortality ; Knowledge ; Level Of Poverty ; Life Expectancy ; Policy Discussions ; Policy Implications ; Population ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Practitioners ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Development ; Social Policies ; Social Services
    Abstract: May 2000 - Existing methods for assessing latent country or institutional performance can yield deceptive results. There have been many attempts to infer latent performance attributes of governments (or other institutions) from conditional comparisons that control for observed variables. Success in doing so could greatly improve government performance. Ravallion critically reviews the econometric foundations of the methods used. He argues that latent heterogeneity remains a fundamental but unresolved problem. Locating a benchmark for measuring performance adds a further problem. Current methods do not yield a consistent estimate of even the mean latent performance attribute. An assessment of country performance by these methods could well be wildly wrong. This paper - a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to assess and improve methods for monitoring and assessing country performance. The study was funded by the Bank's Research Support Budget under the research project Policies for Poor Areas (RPO 681-39). The author may be contacted at mravallionworldbank.org
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  • 15
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    Greed and Grievance in Civil War (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (50 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Collier, Paul Greed and Grievance in Civil War
    Keywords: Civil War ; Conflict ; Conflict and Development ; Conflicts ; Crime ; Diasporas ; Economic Theory Of Rebellion ; Ethnic Majority ; Extortion ; Greed-Rebellion ; Grievance Model ; Grievance Models ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Peace and Peacekeeping ; Political Analysis ; Population Policies ; Post Conflict Reconstruction ; Predatory Rebellion ; Protest Movement ; Protest Movements ; Rebel Movements ; Rebel Organization ; Rebel Organizations ; Rebellion ; Rebellions ; Social Conflict and Violence ; Social Development ; Civil War ; Conflict ; Conflict and Development ; Conflicts ; Crime ; Diasporas ; Economic Theory Of Rebellion ; Ethnic Majority ; Extortion ; Greed-Rebellion ; Grievance Model ; Grievance Models ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Peace and Peacekeeping ; Political Analysis ; Population Policies ; Post Conflict Reconstruction ; Predatory Rebellion ; Protest Movement ; Protest Movements ; Rebel Movements ; Rebel Organization ; Rebel Organizations ; Rebellion ; Rebellions ; Social Conflict and Violence ; Social Development
    Abstract: May 2000 - Of the 27 major armed conflicts that occurred in 1999, all but two took place within national boundaries. As an impediment to development, internal rebellion especially hurts the world's poorest countries. What motivates civil wars? Greed or grievance? Collier and Hoeffler compare two contrasting motivations for rebellion: greed and grievance. Most rebellions are ostensibly in pursuit of a cause, supported by a narrative of grievance. But since grievance assuagement through rebellion is a public good that a government will not supply, economists predict such rebellions would be rare. Empirically, many rebellions appear to be linked to the capture of resources (such as diamonds in Angola and Sierra Leone, drugs in Colombia, and timber in Cambodia). Collier and Hoeffler set up a simple rational choice model of greed-rebellion and contrast its predictions with those of a simple grievance model. Some countries return to conflict repeatedly. Are they conflict-prone or is there a feedback effect whereby conflict generates grievance, which in turn generates further conflict? The authors show why such a feedback effect might be present in both greed-motivated and grievance rebellions. The authors' results contrast with conventional beliefs about the causes of conflict. A stylized version of conventional beliefs would be that grievance begets conflict, which begets grievance, which begets further conflict. With such a model, the only point at which to intervene is to reduce the level of objective grievance. Collier and Hoeffler's model suggests that what actually happens is that opportunities for predation (controlling primary commodity exports) cause conflict and the grievances this generates induce dias-poras to finance further conflict. The point of policy intervention here is to reduce the absolute and relative attraction of primary commodity predation and to reduce the ability of diasporas to fund rebel movements. This paper - a product of the Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to study civil war and criminal violence. For more on this effort, go to www.worldbank.org/research/conflict. Paul Collier may be contacted at pcollierworldbank.org
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  • 16
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    Gender, Poverty, and Nonfarm Employment in Ghana and Uganda (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (48 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Newman, Constance Gender, Poverty, and Nonfarm Employment in Ghana and Uganda
    Keywords: Agricultural Output ; Cash Crops ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Gender ; Gender and Development ; Gender and Health ; Gender and Law ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Household Income Diversification ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Human Capital ; Human Development ; Income ; Income Shares ; Income-Generating Activities ; Inequality ; Law and Development ; Poor ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Levels ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Rural ; Rural Areas ; Rural Development ; Rural Development ; Rural Development Knowledge and Information Systems ; Rural Economy ; Rural Poverty ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Rural Residents ; Agricultural Output ; Cash Crops ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Gender ; Gender and Development ; Gender and Health ; Gender and Law ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Household Income Diversification ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Human Capital ; Human Development ; Income ; Income Shares ; Income-Generating Activities ; Inequality ; Law and Development ; Poor ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Levels ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Rural ; Rural Areas ; Rural Development ; Rural Development ; Rural Development Knowledge and Information Systems ; Rural Economy ; Rural Poverty ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Rural Residents
    Abstract: June 2000 - For women in Ghana and Uganda, nonfarm activities play an important role in yielding the lowest - and the most rapidly declining - rural poverty rates. In both countries rural poverty declined fastest for female heads of household engaged in nonfarm work (which tended to be a secondary activity). But patterns vary between the two countries. Newman and Canagarajah provide evidence that women's nonfarm activities help reduce poverty in two economically and culturally different countries, Ghana and Uganda. In both countries rural poverty rates were lowest - and fell most rapidly - for female heads of household engaged in nonfarm activities. Participation in nonfarm activities increased more rapidly for women, especially married women and female heads of household, than for men. Women were more likely than men to combine agriculture and nonfarm activities. In Ghana it was nonfarm activities (for which income data are available) that provided the highest average incomes and the highest shares of income. Bivariate probit analysis of participation shows that in Uganda female heads of household and in Ghana women in general are significantly more likely than men to participate in nonfarm activities and less likely to participate in agriculture. This paper - a joint product of Rural Development, Development Research Group, and the Social Protection Team, Human Development Network- is part of a larger effort in the Bank to discuss gender, employment, and poverty linkages. The authors may be contacted at cnewman1worldbank.orgor scanagarajah@worldbank.org
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  • 17
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    Aid Dependence and the Quality of Governance : A Cross-Country Empirical Analysis (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (44 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Knack, Stephen Aid Dependence and the Quality of Governance
    Keywords: Accountability ; Aid Dependence ; Bureaucracy ; Bureaucratic Quality ; Corruption ; Country Data ; Development Economics and Aid Effectiveness ; Disability ; Economic Growth ; Economic Theory and Research ; Education ; Emerging Markets ; Foreign Aid ; Gender ; Gender and Health ; Good Governance ; Governance ; Governance ; Governance Indicators ; Growth ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Income ; Income Growth ; Institutional Quality ; Institutions ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; National Governance ; Natural Resources ; Per Capita Incomes ; Policy Implications ; Private Sector Development ; Public Sector Corruption and Anticorruption Measures ; Reverse Causality ; Rule Of Law ; School Health ; Social Protections and Labor ; Accountability ; Aid Dependence ; Bureaucracy ; Bureaucratic Quality ; Corruption ; Country Data ; Development Economics and Aid Effectiveness ; Disability ; Economic Growth ; Economic Theory and Research ; Education ; Emerging Markets ; Foreign Aid ; Gender ; Gender and Health ; Good Governance ; Governance ; Governance ; Governance Indicators ; Growth ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Income ; Income Growth ; Institutional Quality ; Institutions ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; National Governance ; Natural Resources ; Per Capita Incomes ; Policy Implications ; Private Sector Development ; Public Sector Corruption and Anticorruption Measures ; Reverse Causality ; Rule Of Law ; School Health ; Social Protections and Labor
    Abstract: July 2000 - Do higher levels of aid erode the very quality of governance poor countries need for sustained and rapid income growth? Good governance-in the form of institutions that establish predictable, impartial, and consistently enforced rules for investors-is crucial for the sustained and rapid growth of per capita incomes in poor countries. Aid dependence can undermine institutional quality by weakening accountability, encouraging rent seeking and corruption, fomenting conflict over control of aid funds, siphoning off scarce talent from the bureaucracy, and alleviating pressures to reform inefficient policies and institutions. Knack's analyses of cross-country data provide evidence that higher aid levels erode the quality of governance, as measured by indexes of bureaucratic quality, corruption, and the rule of law. This negative relationship strengthens when instruments for aid are used to correct for potential reverse causality. It is robust to changes in the sample and to several alternative forms of estimation. Recent studies have concluded that aid's impact on economic growth and infant mortality is conditional on policy and institutional gaps. Knack's results indicate that the size of the institutional gap itself increases with aid levels. This paper-a product of Regulation and Competition Policy, Development Research Group-is part of a larger effort in the group to identify the determinants of good governance and institutions conducive to long-run economic development. The author may be contacted at sknackworldbank.org
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  • 18
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    Marginal Willingness to Pay for Education and the Determinants of Enrollment in Mexico (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (28 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Salinas, Angel Marginal Willingness to Pay for Education and the Determinants of Enrollment in Mexico
    Keywords: Education ; Education ; Education Facilities ; Education for All ; Educational Expenditure ; Educational Expenditures ; Educational Levels ; Educational Policy ; Educational Reforms ; Educational Services ; Effective Schools and Teachers ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Gender ; Gender and Education ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Population Policies ; Poverty Reduction ; Primary Education ; Primary Level ; Private Schools ; Public Schools ; Public Sector Management and Reform ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; School ; School Attendance ; School Enrollment ; School Fees ; School Level ; School Quality ; Schooling ; Secondary Education ; Secondary School ; Tertiary Education ; Textbooks ; Education ; Education ; Education Facilities ; Education for All ; Educational Expenditure ; Educational Expenditures ; Educational Levels ; Educational Policy ; Educational Reforms ; Educational Services ; Effective Schools and Teachers ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Gender ; Gender and Education ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Population Policies ; Poverty Reduction ; Primary Education ; Primary Level ; Private Schools ; Public Schools ; Public Sector Management and Reform ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; School ; School Attendance ; School Enrollment ; School Fees ; School Level ; School Quality ; Schooling ; Secondary Education ; Secondary School ; Tertiary Education ; Textbooks
    Abstract: July 2000 - The best way to increase school enrollment in Mexico is to successfully target public spending on education to poor households. Currently, nonpoor households in urban areas get much of the subsidy benefit from the government provision of education services. Standard benefit-incidence analysis assumes that the subsidy and quality of education services are the same for all income deciles. This strong assumption tends to minimize the distributional inequity at various education levels. Using a new approach emphasizing marginal willingness to pay for education, Lopez-Acevedo and Salinas analyze the impact of public spending on the education spending behavior of the average household. They address several questions: What would an average household with a given set of characteristics be willing to spend on an individual child with given traits if subsidized public education facilities were unavailable? What would the household have saved by sending the child to public school rather than private school? How great are these savings for various income groups? What are the determinants of enrollment by income group and by location? How do individuals' education expenditures affect enrollment patterns? Among their findings: · The nonpoor households in urban areas get much of the subsidy, or savings, from government provision of education services. · The wealthy value private education more than the poor do. · Differences in school quality are greater at the primary level. In other words, wealthy households get the lion's share of benefits from public spending on education. Household school enrollment and transition to the next level of schooling depend heavily on the cost of schooling, how far the head of the household went in school, the per capita household income, and the housing facilities or services. But the government's effort also affects the probability of enrollment and transition. The probability of enrollment is much higher for the 40 percent of higher-income households in urban areas than it is for the 40 percent of lower-income households in rural areas. The best way to increase school enrollment is to successfully target public spending on education to poor households. This paper-a product of the Economic Policy Sector Unit and the Mexico Country Office, Latin America and the Caribbean Region-is part of a strategy to reduce poverty and inequality in Mexico. The study was part of the research project Earnings Inequality after Mexico's Economic Reforms. The authors may be contacted at gacevedoworldbank.org or asalinas@worldbank.org
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  • 19
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    State Policies and Women’s Autonomy in China, India, and the Republic of Korea, 1950–2000 : Lessons from Contrasting Experiences (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (40 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Gupta, Das Monica State Policies and Women’s Autonomy in China, India, and the Republic of Korea, 1950–2000
    Keywords: Anthropology ; Child Mortality ; Communication Efforts ; Cultural Values ; Culture & Development ; Development Strategies ; Gender ; Gender Equity ; Gender Policy ; Gender Roles ; Gender and Development ; Gender and Health ; Gender and Law ; Health Monitoring and Evaluation ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Impact Of Policies ; Inheritance ; Integration Of Women ; Kinship ; Law and Development ; Opportunities For Women ; Policy Research ; Population ; Population Association ; Population Policies ; Population and Development ; Public Life ; Rural Development Knowledge and Information Systems ; Social Development ; State Policies ; Urbanization ; Women ; Anthropology ; Child Mortality ; Communication Efforts ; Cultural Values ; Culture & Development ; Development Strategies ; Gender ; Gender Equity ; Gender Policy ; Gender Roles ; Gender and Development ; Gender and Health ; Gender and Law ; Health Monitoring and Evaluation ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Impact Of Policies ; Inheritance ; Integration Of Women ; Kinship ; Law and Development ; Opportunities For Women ; Policy Research ; Population ; Population Association ; Population Policies ; Population and Development ; Public Life ; Rural Development Knowledge and Information Systems ; Social Development ; State Policies ; Urbanization ; Women
    Abstract: November 2000 - State policies can enormously influence gender equity. They can mitigate cultural constraints on women’s autonomy (as in China and India) or slow the pace of change in gender equity (as in the Republic of Korea). Policies to provide opportunities for women’s empowerment should be accompanied by communication efforts to alter cultural values that limit women’s access to those opportunities. Das Gupta, Lee, Uberoi, Wang, Wang, and Zhang compare changes in gender roles and women’s empowerment in China, India, and the Republic of Korea. Around 1950, these newly formed states were largely poor and agrarian, with common cultural factors that placed similar severe constraints on women’s autonomy. They adopted very different paths of development, which are well known to have profoundly affected development outcomes. These choices have also had a tremendous impact on gender outcomes, and today these countries show striking differences in the extent of gender equity achieved. China has achieved the most gender equity, the Republic of Korea the least. The authors conclude that: States can exert enormous influence over gender equity. They can mitigate cultural constraints on women’s autonomy (as in China and India) or slow the pace of change in gender equity despite women’s rapid integration into education, formal employment, and urbanization (as in the Republic of Korea). The impact of policies to provide opportunities for women’s empowerment can be greatly enhanced if accompanied by communication efforts to alter cultural values that place heavy constraints on women’s access to those opportunities. This paper—a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group—is part of a larger effort in the group to examine the institutional bases of social inclusion and poverty reduction. Monica Das Gupta may be contacted at mdasguptaworldbank.org
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  • 20
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    Public Choices between Lifesaving Programs : How Important Are Lives Saved? (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (78 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Cropper, Maureen Public Choices between Lifesaving Programs
    Keywords: Air Quality and Clean Air ; Breast Cancer ; Brown Issues and Health ; Children ; Disease Control and Prevention ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Environmental Health ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Health ; Health Care ; Health Education ; Health Monitoring and Evaluation ; Health Services ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Implementation ; Industrial Pollution ; Industry ; Insurance and Risk Mitigation ; Internet ; Knowledge ; Ozone ; Population Policies ; Public Health ; Risks ; Screening ; Smokers ; Smoking ; Strategy ; Water Pollution ; Water Resources ; Water and Industry ; Workplace ; Air Quality and Clean Air ; Breast Cancer ; Brown Issues and Health ; Children ; Disease Control and Prevention ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Environmental Health ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Health ; Health Care ; Health Education ; Health Monitoring and Evaluation ; Health Services ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Implementation ; Industrial Pollution ; Industry ; Insurance and Risk Mitigation ; Internet ; Knowledge ; Ozone ; Population Policies ; Public Health ; Risks ; Screening ; Smokers ; Smoking ; Strategy ; Water Pollution ; Water Resources ; Water and Industry ; Workplace
    Abstract: August 1995 - Do funding priorities for health and safety policies reflect irrational fears? the disaster of the month - rather than address more fundamental problems? A thousand people were surveyed to gauge popular feelings about funding choices between environmental and public health programs. In developing and industrial countries alike, there is concern that health and safety policy may respond to irrational fears - to the disaster of the month - rather than address more fundamental problems. In the United States, for example, some policymakers say the public worries about trivial risks while ignoring larger ones and that funding priorities reflect this view. Many public health programs with a low cost per life saved are underfunded, for example, while many environmental regulations with a high cost per life saved are issued each year. Does the existing allocation of resources reflect people's preoccupation with the qualitative aspects of risks, to the exclusion of quantitative factors (lives saved)? Or can observed differences in the cost per life saved of environmental and public health programs be explained by the way the two sets of programs are funded? Cropper and Subramanian examine the preferences of U.S. citizens for health and safety programs. They confronted a random sample of 1,000 U.S. adults with choices between environmental health and public health programs, to see which they would choose. The authors then examined what factors (qualitative and quantitative) seem to influence these choices. Respondents were asked about pairs of programs, among them: smoking education or industrial pollution control programs, industrial pollution control or pneumonia vaccine programs, radon eradication or a program to ban smoking in the workplace, and radon eradication or programs to ban pesticides. The survey results, they feel, have implications beyond the United States. They find that, while qualitative aspects of the life-saving programs are statistically significant in explaining people's choices among them, lives saved matter, too. Indeed, for the median respondent in the survey, the rate of substitution between most qualitative risk characteristics and lives saved is inelastic. But for a sizable minority of respondents, choice among programs appears to be insensitive to lives saved. The interesting question for public policy is what role the latter group plays in the regulatory process. This paper - a joint product of the Environment, Infrastructure, and Agriculture Division, Policy Research Department, and the Environment and Natural Resources Division, Asia Technical Department - is part of a larger effort in the Bank to see what can be learned about efficient environmental policy by examining the U.S. experience with environmental regulation. The authors may be contacted at mcropperworldbank.org or usubramanian@worldbank.org
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  • 21
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    When Is Growth Pro-Poor? : Evidence from the Diverse Experiences of India's States (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (36 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Ravallion, Martin When Is Growth Pro-Poor?
    Keywords: Absolute Poverty ; Economic Growth ; Farm Growth ; Farm Output ; Farm Productivity ; Food Policy ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Household Surveys ; Human Development ; Inequality ; Measures ; Poor ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Alleviation ; Poverty Measurement ; Poverty Reducing ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Rural ; Rural Development ; Rural Development ; Rural Living Standards ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Absolute Poverty ; Economic Growth ; Farm Growth ; Farm Output ; Farm Productivity ; Food Policy ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Household Surveys ; Human Development ; Inequality ; Measures ; Poor ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Alleviation ; Poverty Measurement ; Poverty Reducing ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Rural ; Rural Development ; Rural Development ; Rural Living Standards ; Rural Poverty Reduction
    Abstract: December 1999 - Nonfarm economic growth in India had very different effects on poverty in different states. Nonfarm growth was least effective at reducing poverty in states where initial conditions were poor in terms of rural development and human resources. Among initial conditions conducive to pro-poor growth, literacy plays a notably positive role. Ravallion and Datt use 20 household surveys for India's 15 major states, spanning 1960-94, to study how initial conditions and the sectoral composition of economic growth interact to influence how much economic growth reduced poverty. The elasticities of measured poverty to farm yields and development spending did not differ significantly across states. But the elasticities of poverty to (urban and rural) nonfarm output varied appreciably, and the differences were quantitatively important to the overall rate of poverty reduction. States with initially lower farm productivity, lower rural living standards relative to those in urban areas, and lower literacy experienced a less pro-poor growth process. This paper - a joint product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group, and the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Sector Unit, South Asia Region - is part of a larger effort in the Bank to better understand the conditions required for pro-poor growth. The authors may be contacted at mravallionworldbank.org or gdatt@worldbank.org
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    Malaria and Growth (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (30 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: McCarthy, Desmond F Malaria and Growth
    Keywords: Anopheles Mosquitoes ; Climate Change ; Communicable Diseases ; Disability ; Disease Control and Prevention ; Diseases ; Early Child and Children's Health ; Effects ; Environment ; Females ; Health ; Health Indicators ; Health Monitoring and Evaluation ; Health Service Management and Delivery ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Illnesses ; Impact Of Malaria ; Life ; Malaria ; Malaria ; Malaria Incidence ; Malaria Morbidity ; Malaria Mortality ; Medical Treatment ; Morbidity And Mortality ; Nutrition ; Parasitic Disease ; Population Policies ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty and Health ; Public Health ; Tuberculosis ; Vaccine ; Anopheles Mosquitoes ; Climate Change ; Communicable Diseases ; Disability ; Disease Control and Prevention ; Diseases ; Early Child and Children's Health ; Effects ; Environment ; Females ; Health ; Health Indicators ; Health Monitoring and Evaluation ; Health Service Management and Delivery ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Illnesses ; Impact Of Malaria ; Life ; Malaria ; Malaria ; Malaria Incidence ; Malaria Morbidity ; Malaria Mortality ; Medical Treatment ; Morbidity And Mortality ; Nutrition ; Parasitic Disease ; Population Policies ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty and Health ; Public Health ; Tuberculosis ; Vaccine
    Abstract: March 2000 - Malaria ranks among the foremost health problems in tropical countries. Allowing for reverse causation, malaria is estimated to reduce GDP per capita growth rates by at least a quarter percentage point a year in many Sub-Saharan countries. McCarthy, Wolf, and Wu explore the two-sided link between malaria morbidity and GDP per capita growth. Climate significantly affects cross-country differences in malaria morbidity. Tropical location is not destiny, however: greater access to rural health care and greater income equality are associated with lower malaria morbidity. But the interpretation of this link is ambiguous: does greater income equality allow for improved anti-malaria efforts, or does malaria itself increase income inequality? Allowing for two-sided causation, McCarthy, Wolf, and Wu find a significant negative causal effect running from malaria morbidity to the growth rate of GDP per capita. In about a quarter of their sample countries, malaria is estimated to reduce GDP per capita growth by at least 0.25 percentage point a year. This paper - a product of Public Economics, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to study the health-environment-economy nexus. This study was funded by the Bank's Research Support Budget under the research project Health, Environment, and the Economy (RPO 683-73). The authors may be contacted at fmccarthyworldbank.org and holger.wolf@mailexcite.com
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    Inflation and the Poor (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (36 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Easterly, William Inflation and the Poor
    Keywords: Access to Markets ; Bank ; Bonds ; Checks ; Cred Education ; Currencies and Exchange Rates ; Debt Markets ; Economic Theory and Research ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Instruments ; Financial Literacy ; Health Indicators ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; ICT Applications ; ICT for Health ; Income ; Incomes ; Inflation ; Inflation ; Information and Communication Technologies ; International Economics & Trade ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Markets and Market Access ; Minimum Wage ; Money ; Pensions ; Poverty Rate ; Poverty Rates ; Probabilities ; Research Assistance ; Stocks ; Subsidies ; Unemployment ; Wages ; Access to Markets ; Bank ; Bonds ; Checks ; Cred Education ; Currencies and Exchange Rates ; Debt Markets ; Economic Theory and Research ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Instruments ; Financial Literacy ; Health Indicators ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; ICT Applications ; ICT for Health ; Income ; Incomes ; Inflation ; Inflation ; Information and Communication Technologies ; International Economics & Trade ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Markets and Market Access ; Minimum Wage ; Money ; Pensions ; Poverty Rate ; Poverty Rates ; Probabilities ; Research Assistance ; Stocks ; Subsidies ; Unemployment ; Wages
    Abstract: May 2000 - The poor suffer more from inflation than the rich do, reveals this survey of poor people in 38 countries. Using polling data for 31,869 households in 38 countries and allowing for country effects, Easterly and Fischer show that the poor are more likely than the rich to mention inflation as a top national concern. This result survives several robustness checks. Also, direct measures of improvements in well-being for the poor - the change in their share of national income, the percentage decline in poverty, and the percentage change in the real minimum wage - are negatively correlated with inflation in pooled cross-country samples. High inflation tends to lower the share of the bottom quintile and the real minimum wage - and tends to increase poverty. This paper - a joint product of Macroeconomics and Growth, Development Research Group, and the International Monetary Fund - is part of a larger effort to study the effects of macroeconomic policies on growth and poverty
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  • 24
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    The Effect of Early Childhood Development Programs on Women's Labor Force Participation and Older Children's Schooling in Kenya (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (42 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Lokshin, M. Michael The Effect of Early Childhood Development Programs on Women's Labor Force Participation and Older Children's Schooling in Kenya
    Keywords: Age ; Boys ; Child Care ; Child Development ; Children ; Children and Youth ; Day Care ; Dropout Rates ; Early Child Development ; Early Childhood Development ; Early Childhood Development ; Education ; Enrollment ; Enrollment Of Girls ; Exams ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Girls ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Participation ; Population Policies ; Primary Education ; Primary Education ; Primary School ; Schooling ; Street Children ; Unemployment ; Urban Development ; Wages ; Women ; Youth and Government ; Age ; Boys ; Child Care ; Child Development ; Children ; Children and Youth ; Day Care ; Dropout Rates ; Early Child Development ; Early Childhood Development ; Early Childhood Development ; Education ; Enrollment ; Enrollment Of Girls ; Exams ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Girls ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Participation ; Population Policies ; Primary Education ; Primary Education ; Primary School ; Schooling ; Street Children ; Unemployment ; Urban Development ; Wages ; Women ; Youth and Government
    Abstract: June 2000 - Economic incentives have a powerful effect on the work behavior of women with children in Kenya. In addition to increasing the future productivity of children, government subsidies of low-cost early childhood development programs would increase the number of mothers who work, thus increasing the incomes of poor households and lifting some families out of poverty. They would also increase older girls' enrollment in school, by releasing them from child care responsibilities. About 20,000 early childhood development centers provided day care for and prepared for primary school more than 1 million children aged three to seven (roughly 20 percent of children in that age group) in Kenya in 1995. The number of child care facilities reached 23,690 by the end of 1999. Lokshin, Glinskaya, and Garcia analyze the effect of child care costs on households' behavior in Kenya. For households with children aged three to seven, they model household demand for mothers' participation in paid work, the participation in paid work of other household members, household demand for schooling, and household demand for child care. They find that: · A high cost for child care discourages households from using formal child care facilities and has a negative effect on mothers' participation in market work. · The cost of child care and the level of mothers' wages affect older children's school enrollment, but these factors affect boys' and girls' schooling differently. An increase in mothers' wages increases boys' enrollment but depresses girls' enrollment. · Higher child care costs have no significant effect on boys' schooling but significantly decrease the number of girls in school. This paper - a joint product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group; Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Sector Unit, South Asia Region; and Human Development 1, Africa Technical Families - is part of a larger effort in the Bank to study the role of gender in the context of the household, institutions, and society. The authors may be contacted at mlokshinworldbank.org, eglinskaya@worldbank.org, or mgarcia1@worldbank.org
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  • 25
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    Africa's Growth Tragedy : A Retrospective, 1960 - 89 (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (44 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Levine, Ross Africa's Growth Tragedy
    Keywords: Black Market ; Business Cycle ; Country Regressions ; Currencies and Exchange Rates ; Economic Growth ; Economic Theory and Research ; Educational Attainment ; Exchange Rate ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Development ; Financial Sector ; Financial Systems ; Growth ; Growth Performance ; Growth Rate ; Growth Rates ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Inequality ; Long-Run Growth ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Nutrition ; Per Capita Income ; Policy Change ; Policy Research ; Political Instability ; Political Stability ; Poor Countries ; Poor Growth ; Poverty Reduction ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Black Market ; Business Cycle ; Country Regressions ; Currencies and Exchange Rates ; Economic Growth ; Economic Theory and Research ; Educational Attainment ; Exchange Rate ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Development ; Financial Sector ; Financial Systems ; Growth ; Growth Performance ; Growth Rate ; Growth Rates ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Inequality ; Long-Run Growth ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Nutrition ; Per Capita Income ; Policy Change ; Policy Research ; Political Instability ; Political Stability ; Poor Countries ; Poor Growth ; Poverty Reduction ; Pro-Poor Growth
    Abstract: August 1995 - Problems associated with Sub-Saharan Africa's slow growth are low school attainment, political instability, poorly developed financial systems, large black-market exchange-rate premia, large government deficits, and inadequate infrastructure. Improving policies alone boosts growth substantially. But if neighboring countries adopt a policy change together, the effects on growth are more than double what they would have been if one country had acted alone. Africa's economic history since 1960 fits the classical definition of tragedy: potential unfulfilled, with disastrous consequences. Easterly and Levine use one methodology - cross-country regressions - to account for Sub-Saharan Africa's growth performance over the past 30 years and to suggest policies to promote growth over the next 30 years. They statistically quantify the relationship between long-run growth and a wider array of factors than any previous study. They consider such standard variables as initial income to capture convergence effects, schooling, political stability, and indicators of monetary, fiscal, trade, exchange rate, and financial sector policies. They also consider such new measures as infrastructure development, cultural diversity, and economic spillovers from neighbors' growth. Their analysis: ° Improves substantially on past attempts to account for the growth experience of Sub-Saharan African countries. ° Shows that low school attainment, political instability, poorly developed financial systems, large black-market exchange-rate premia, large government deficits, and inadequate infrastructure are associated with slow growth. ° Finds that Africa's ethnic diversity tends to slow growth and reduce the likelihood of adopting good policies. ° Identifies spillovers of growth performance between neighboring countries. The spillover effects of growth have implications for policy strategy. Improving policies alone boosts growth substantially, but if neighboring countries act together, the effects on growth are much greater. Specifically, the results suggest that the effect of neighbors' adopting a policy change is 2.2 times greater than if a single country acted alone. This paper - a joint product of the Macroeconomics and Growth Division and the Finance and Private Sector Development Division, Policy Research Department - is part of a larger effort in the department to understand the link between policies and growth. The study was funded by the Bank's Research Support Budget under the research project Patterns of Growth (RPO 678-26)
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    Are the Poor Less Well-Insured? : Evidence on Vulnerability to Income Risk in Rural China (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (34 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Ravallion, Martin Are the Poor Less Well-Insured?
    Keywords: 1997 ; China ; Consumption ; Consumption ; Current Consumption ; Emerging Markets ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Intermediation ; Fiscal and Monetary Policy ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Size ; Households ; Income ; Income ; Income Risk ; Income Shock ; Inequality ; Insurance ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Martin ; Poor ; Poor Areas ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Public Sector Development ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Protections and Labor ; Vulnerability ; Wealth Groups ; 1997 ; China ; Consumption ; Consumption ; Current Consumption ; Emerging Markets ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Intermediation ; Fiscal and Monetary Policy ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Size ; Households ; Income ; Income ; Income Risk ; Income Shock ; Inequality ; Insurance ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Martin ; Poor ; Poor Areas ; Poverty Reduction ; Private Sector Development ; Public Sector Development ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Protections and Labor ; Vulnerability ; Wealth Groups
    Abstract: December 1997 - In rural China, those in the poorest wealth decile are the least well-insured, with 40 percent of an income shock being passed on to current consumption. By contrast, consumption by the richest third of households is protected from almost 90 percent of an income shock. Jalan and Ravallion test how well consumption is insured against income risk in a panel of sampled households in rural China. They estimate the risk insurance models by Generalized Method of Moments, treating income and household size as endogenous. Insurance exists for all wealth groups, although the hypothesis of perfect insurance is universally rejected. Those in the poorest wealth decile are the least well-insured, with 40 percent of an income shock being passed on to current consumption. By contrast, consumption by the richest third of households is protected from almost 90 percent of an income shock. The extent of insurance in a given wealth stratum varies little between poor and nonpoor areas. This paper-a product of the Development Research Group-is part of a larger effort in the group to understand private insurance arrangements in poor rural economies. The study was funded by the Bank's Research Support Budget under the research project Dynamics of Poverty in Rural China (RPO 678-69)
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    Income Gains to the Poor from Workfare : Estimates for Argentina's Trabajar Program (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (36 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Ravallion, Martin Income Gains to the Poor from Workfare
    Keywords: Communities & Human Settlements ; Counterfactual ; Economic Theory and Research ; Evaluation ; Experimental Design ; Experimental Methods ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Impact Evaluation ; Income ; Income ; Inequality ; Intervention ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Matching Methods ; Outcomes ; Participation ; Poverty ; Poverty Impact Evaluation ; Poverty Measures ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Reduction ; Programs ; Projects ; Reflexive Comparisons ; Research ; Sampling ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Protections and Labor ; Surveys ; Targeting ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Counterfactual ; Economic Theory and Research ; Evaluation ; Experimental Design ; Experimental Methods ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Impact Evaluation ; Income ; Income ; Inequality ; Intervention ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Matching Methods ; Outcomes ; Participation ; Poverty ; Poverty Impact Evaluation ; Poverty Measures ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Reduction ; Programs ; Projects ; Reflexive Comparisons ; Research ; Sampling ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Protections and Labor ; Surveys ; Targeting
    Abstract: July 1999 - A workfare program was introduced in response to high unemployment in Argentina. An ex-post evaluation using matching methods indicates that the program generated sizable net income gains to generally poor participants. Jalan and Ravallion use propensity-score matching methods to estimate the net income gains to families of workers participating in an Argentinian workfare program. The methods they propose are feasible for evaluating safety net interventions in settings in which many other methods are not feasible. The average gain is about half the gross wage. Even allowing for forgone income, the distribution of gains is decidedly pro-poor. More than half the beneficiaries are in the poorest decile nationally and 80 percent of them are in the poorest quintile - reflecting the self-targeting feature of the program design. Average gains for men and women are similar, but gains are higher for younger workers. Women's greater participation would not enhance average income gains, and the distribution of gains would worsen. Greater participation by the young would raise average gains but would also worsen the distribution. This paper - a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to improve methods for evaluating the poverty impact of Bank-supported programs. The authors may be contacted at jjalanisid.ac.in or mravallion@worldbank.org
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    Challenging El Salvador's Rural Health Care Strategy (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (58 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Eskeland, Gunnar Challenging El Salvador's Rural Health Care Strategy
    Keywords: Aged ; Children ; Clinics ; Decision Making ; First Aid ; Health ; Health Behavior ; Health Care ; Health Monitoring and Evaluation ; Health Services ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Hospitals ; Injuries ; Knowledge ; Mortality ; Patients ; Physicians ; Prevention ; Primary Health Care ; Public Health ; Strategy ; Workers ; Aged ; Children ; Clinics ; Decision Making ; First Aid ; Health ; Health Behavior ; Health Care ; Health Monitoring and Evaluation ; Health Services ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Hospitals ; Injuries ; Knowledge ; Mortality ; Patients ; Physicians ; Prevention ; Primary Health Care ; Public Health ; Strategy ; Workers
    Abstract: August 1999 - Low-skilled health promoters posted in rural villages are doing little to improve health or health-seeking behaviors. In a supply-driven system, such workers have too few incentives, too little knowledge, and too little supervision. Results can be improved without increasing costs. Can a supply-driven network of under-skilled rural health promoters make a difference in rural health care? There are few, if any, signs that the current rural health strategy in El Salvador is working, whether the health promoters are government employees or nongovernmental organization (NGO) workers. Lewis, Eskeland, and Traa-Valerezo arrived at this conclusion after conducting interviews and analyzing primary and secondary data. The village-based health promoters lack incentives and supervision, and ultimately have little to offer local communities. NGO workers are more successful than government workers, but neither group performs satisfactorily. Even the rural poor use private services quite intensively, despite the high cost of the services and of getting access to them. Moreover, people seem to seek the services they need. They select self-treatment in 50 percent of illness episodes, with about the same success rate as when they use health providers. Other options should be considered, as results can be improved without increasing costs. This paper - a product of the Human Development Sector Units, Europe and Central Asia Region and Latin America and Caribbean Region; and Public Economics, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the Bank to encourage appropriate policies and programs in the health sector. The authors may be contacted at mlewis1worldbank.org, geskeland@worldbank.org, or xtraavalerezo@worldbank.org
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  • 29
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    Jamaica's Food Stamp Program : Impacts on Poverty and Welfare (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (42 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Ezemenari, Kene Jamaica's Food Stamp Program
    Keywords: Agricultural Sector ; Dates ; Debt Markets ; Farm-Gate ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Food ; Food Consumption ; Food Policy ; Food Price ; Food Stamps ; Food Subsidies ; Food Subsidy ; Food and Beverage Industry ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Incidence Of Poverty ; Industry ; Milk ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Gap ; Poverty Impact ; Poverty Lines ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction Strategies ; Poverty Severity ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Rice ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Safety Net ; Safety Nets ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Small Area Estimation Poverty Mapping ; Urban Partnerships and Poverty ; Agricultural Sector ; Dates ; Debt Markets ; Farm-Gate ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Food ; Food Consumption ; Food Policy ; Food Price ; Food Stamps ; Food Subsidies ; Food Subsidy ; Food and Beverage Industry ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Incidence Of Poverty ; Industry ; Milk ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Gap ; Poverty Impact ; Poverty Lines ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction Strategies ; Poverty Severity ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Rice ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Safety Net ; Safety Nets ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Small Area Estimation Poverty Mapping ; Urban Partnerships and Poverty
    Abstract: Without the food stamp program, the poverty gap in Jamaica would have been much worse during the early 1990s, when the Jamaican dollar was being devalued. Households with elderly members and young children benefited most from the program. - Ezemenari and Subbarao examine how the food stamp program affected measures of poverty during devaluation of the Jamaican dollar in the early 1990s. They find that without the food stamp program, the poverty gap in Jamaica would have been much worse, especially in 1990 and 1991. For the country as a whole, not having a food stamp program wouldn't have affected the incidence of poverty significantly, but particular groups among the poor would have fared worse. Households with elderly residents benefited most from the program. Households with young children benefited more than households without, in terms of the poverty headcount and gap. The program also appears to have had more effect on extremely poor households than on those of the transient poor (people who move in and out of poverty). Explicitly incorporating behavioral responses into the model reduces the contribution of food stamps to household consumption and poverty, but the poorest benefited most from the program even after accounting for behavioral responses. The program contributed more to reducing poverty than to smoothing consumption. This paper - a product of the Poverty Division, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network - was presented at the World Bank Institute workshop Evaluating the Impact of Development Interventions: Concepts, Methods and Cases, December 9-10, 1998. The authors may be contacted at kezemenariworldbank.org or ksubbarao@worldbank.org
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    True World Income Distribution, 1988 and 1993 : First Calculations, Based on Household Surveys Alone (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (70 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Milanovic, Branko True World Income Distribution, 1988 and 1993
    Keywords: Consumption ; Economic Theory ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Growth Models ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Household Surveys ; Income ; Income ; Income Differences ; Income Distribution ; Income Distribution Data ; Income Inequality ; Increasing Inequality ; Inequality ; Inequality ; Macroeconomics ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Mean Incomes ; Median Voter ; Median Voter Hypothesis ; Personal Income ; Political Economy ; Poverty Diagnostics ; Poverty Impact Evaluation ; Poverty Reduction ; Power Parity ; Private Sector Development ; Rising Inequality ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Protections and Labor ; Consumption ; Economic Theory ; Economic Theory and Research ; Emerging Markets ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Growth Models ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Household Surveys ; Income ; Income ; Income Differences ; Income Distribution ; Income Distribution Data ; Income Inequality ; Increasing Inequality ; Inequality ; Inequality ; Macroeconomics ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Mean Incomes ; Median Voter ; Median Voter Hypothesis ; Personal Income ; Political Economy ; Poverty Diagnostics ; Poverty Impact Evaluation ; Poverty Reduction ; Power Parity ; Private Sector Development ; Rising Inequality ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Protections and Labor
    Abstract: Inequality in world income is very high, according to household surveys, more because of differences between mean country incomes than because of inequality within countries. World inequality increased between 1988 and 1993, driven by slower growth in rural per capita incomes in populous Asian countries (Bangladesh, China, and India) than in large, rich OECD countries, and by increasing income differences between urban China on the one hand and rural China and rural India on the other. - Milanovic derives the distribution of individuals' income or expenditures for two years, 1988 and 1993. His is the first paper to calculate world distribution for individuals based entirely on data from household surveys. The data, from 91 countries, are adjusted for differences in purchasing power parity between the countries. Measured by the Gini index, inequality increased from an already high 63 in 1988 to 66 in 1993. This increase was driven more by rising differences in mean incomes between countries than by rising inequalities within countries. Contributing most to the inequality were rising urban-rural differences in China and the slower growth of rural purchasing-power-adjusted incomes in South Asia than in several large developed market economies. This paper - a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to study inequality and poverty in the world. Also published in The Economic Journal, January 2002 pp. 51-92 The author may be contacted at bmilanovicworldbank.org
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    Can the World Cut Poverty in Half? : How Policy Reform and Effective Aid Can Meet International Development Goals (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (56 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Dollar, David Can the World Cut Poverty in Half?
    Keywords: Developing Countries ; Development Assistance ; Development Goals ; Economic Policies ; Global Poverty ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Incidence Of Poverty ; Large Populations ; Low-Income Countries ; Policies ; Policy ; Policy Change ; Population ; Population Growth ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Purchasing Power ; Purchasing Power Parity ; Respect ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Significant Policy ; Workshops ; Developing Countries ; Development Assistance ; Development Goals ; Economic Policies ; Global Poverty ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Incidence Of Poverty ; Large Populations ; Low-Income Countries ; Policies ; Policy ; Policy Change ; Population ; Population Growth ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Purchasing Power ; Purchasing Power Parity ; Respect ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Significant Policy ; Workshops
    Abstract: July 2000 - Poverty in the developing world will decline by roughly half by 2015 if current growth trends and policies persist. But a disproportionate share of poverty reduction will occur in East and South Asia, poverty will decline only slightly in Sub-Saharan Africa, and it will increase in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. What can be done to change this picture? More effective development aid could greatly improve poverty reduction in the areas where poverty reduction is expected to lag: Sub-Saharan Africa, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia. Even more potent would be significant policy reform in the countries themselves. Collier and Dollar develop a model of efficient aid in which the total volume of aid is endogenous. In particular, aid flows respond to policy improvements that create a better environment for poverty reduction and effective use of aid. They use the model to investigate scenarios-of policy reform, of more efficient aid, and of greater volumes of aid-that point the way to how the world could cut poverty in half in every major region. The fact that aid increases the benefits of reform suggests that a high level of aid to strong reformers may increase the likelihood of sustained good policy (an idea ratified in several recent case studies of low-income reformers). Collier and Dollar find that the world is not operating on the efficiency frontier. With the same level of concern, much more poverty reduction could be achieved by allocating aid on the basis of how poor countries are as well as on the basis of the quality of their policies. Global poverty reduction requires a partnership in which third world countries and governments improve economic policy while first world citizens and governments show concern about poverty and translate that concern into effective assistance. This paper-a product of the Development Research Group-is part of a larger effort in the group to study aid effectiveness. The authors may be contacted at pcollierworldbank.org or ddollar@worldbank.org
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    How Did the World's Poorest Fare in the 1990s? (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (36 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Ravallion, Martin How Did the World's Poorest Fare in the 1990s?
    Keywords: Absolute Poverty ; Aggregate Poverty ; Consumer Price Index ; Consumption ; Consumption Basket ; Consumption Expenditure ; Consumption Expenditures ; Consumption Per Capita ; Consumption Poverty ; Debt Markets ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Higher Inequality ; Household Living Standards ; Household Size ; Incidence Of Poverty ; Income Distribution ; Inequality ; Poor Countries ; Population Policies ; Poverty Diagnostics ; Poverty Line ; Poverty Lines ; Poverty Measures ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Rate ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction Strategies ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Absolute Poverty ; Aggregate Poverty ; Consumer Price Index ; Consumption ; Consumption Basket ; Consumption Expenditure ; Consumption Expenditures ; Consumption Per Capita ; Consumption Poverty ; Debt Markets ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Higher Inequality ; Household Living Standards ; Household Size ; Incidence Of Poverty ; Income Distribution ; Inequality ; Poor Countries ; Population Policies ; Poverty Diagnostics ; Poverty Line ; Poverty Lines ; Poverty Measures ; Poverty Monitoring and Analysis ; Poverty Rate ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction Strategies ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor
    Abstract: August 2000 - Between 1987 and 1998, the incidence of poverty fell in Asia and the Middle East and North Africa, changed little in Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa, and rose in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. Too little economic growth in the poorest countries and persistent inequalities (in income and other measures) are the main reasons for the disappointing rate of poverty reduction. Drawing on data from 265 national sample surveys spanning 83 countries, Chen and Ravallion find that there was a net decrease in the total incidence of consumption poverty between 1987 and 1998. But it was not enough to reduce the total number of poor people, by various definitions. The incidence of poverty fell in Asia and the Middle East and North Africa, changed little in Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa, and rose in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. The two main proximate causes of the disappointing rate of poverty reduction: too little economic growth in many of the poorest countries, and persistent inequalities (in both income and other essential measures) that kept the poor from participating in the growth that did occur. This paper-a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group-is part of a larger effort in the group to monitor progress against poverty in the developing world. The authors may be contacted at schenworldbank.org or mravallion@worldbank.org
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  • 33
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    Aid Allocation and Poverty Reduction (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (46 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Dollar, David Aid Allocation and Poverty Reduction
    Keywords: Development Efforts ; Domestic Poverty ; Economic Growth ; Elimination Of Poverty ; Emergencies ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Level Of Poverty ; Living Standards ; National Policy ; Policies ; Policy Level ; Poor People ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Quantitative Measures ; Recipient Countries ; Respect ; Rule Of Law ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Sectoral Policies ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Sustainable Growth ; War ; Development Efforts ; Domestic Poverty ; Economic Growth ; Elimination Of Poverty ; Emergencies ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Level Of Poverty ; Living Standards ; National Policy ; Policies ; Policy Level ; Poor People ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Poverty Reduction ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Quantitative Measures ; Recipient Countries ; Respect ; Rule Of Law ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Sectoral Policies ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Sustainable Growth ; War
    Abstract: In the efficient allocation of aid, aid is targeted disproportionately to countries with severe poverty and adequate policies. For a given level of poverty, aid tapers in with policy reform. In the actual allocation of aid, aid tapers out with reform. - Aid now lifts about 30 million people a year out of absolute poverty. With a poverty-efficient allocation, the same amount of aid would lift about 80 million people out of poverty. Collier and Dollar derive a poverty-efficient allocation of aid and compare it with actual aid allocations. They build the poverty-efficient allocation in two stages. First they use new World Bank ratings of 20 different aspects of national policy to establish the current relationship between aid, policies, and growth. Onto that, they add a mapping from growth to poverty reduction, which reflects the level and distribution of income. They compare the effects of using headcount and poverty-gap measures of poverty. They find the actual allocation of aid to be radically different from the poverty-efficient allocation. In the efficient allocation, for a given level of poverty, aid tapers in with policy reform. In the actual allocation, aid tapers out with reform. In the efficient allocation, aid is targeted disproportionately to countries with severe poverty and adequate policies - the type of country where 74 percent of the world's poor live. In the actual allocation, such countries receive a much smaller share of aid (56 percent) than their share of the world's poor. With the present allocation, aid is effective in sustainably lifting about 30 million people a year out of absolute poverty. With a poverty-efficient allocation, this would increase to about 80 million people. Even with political constraints introduced to keep allocations for India and China constant, poverty reduction would increase to about 60 million. Reallocating aid is politically difficult, but it may be considerably less difficult than quadrupling aid budgets, which is what the authors estimate would be necessary to achieve the same impact on poverty reduction with existing aid allocations. This paper - a joint product of the Office of the Director, and Macroeconomics and Growth, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to examine aid effectiveness. The authors may be contacted at pcollierworldbank.org or ddollar@worldbank.org
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  • 34
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    Gender Bias in China, the Republic of Korea, and India 1920-90 : Effects of War, Famine, and Fertility Decline (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (39 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Gupta, Das Monica Gender Bias in China, the Republic of Korea, and India 1920-90
    Keywords: Center For Population ; Child Mortality ; Child Survival ; Discrimination ; Fertility ; Fertility Decline ; Gender ; Gender Bias ; Gender and Law ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Law and Development ; Marriage ; National Level ; Number Of Births ; Population ; Population And Development ; Population Policies ; Population Research ; Poverty ; Resource Constraint ; Sex ; Sex Ratios ; Son Preference ; United Nations Population Fund ; War ; Center For Population ; Child Mortality ; Child Survival ; Discrimination ; Fertility ; Fertility Decline ; Gender ; Gender Bias ; Gender and Law ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Law and Development ; Marriage ; National Level ; Number Of Births ; Population ; Population And Development ; Population Policies ; Population Research ; Poverty ; Resource Constraint ; Sex ; Sex Ratios ; Son Preference ; United Nations Population Fund ; War
    Abstract: June 1999 - The proportions of girls 'missing' rose sharply in these countries during times of war, famine, and fertility decline. Resulting shortages of wives improved the treatment of adult women without reducing discrimination against daughters or increasing women's autonomy. The latter goals can be reached only with fundamental changes in women's family position-changes that are taking place only slowly. Kinship systems in China, the Republic of Korea, and North India have similar features that generate discrimination against girls, and these countries have some of the highest proportions of girls 'missing' in the world. Das Gupta and Li document how the excess mortality of girls was increased by war, famine, and fertility decline-all of which constrained household resources-between 1920 and 1990. Of the three countries, China experienced the most crises during this period (with civil war, invasion, and famine). The resulting excess mortality of girls in China offset the demographic forces making for a surplus of wives as overall mortality rates declined. India had the quietest history during this period, and consequently followed the expected pattern of a growing surplus of available wives. These changes in sex ratios had substantial social ramifications. The authors hypothesize that these demographic factors: ° Encouraged the continuation of brideprice in China, while in India there was a shift to dowry. ° Influenced the extent and manifestations of violence against women. An oversupply of women is the worst scenario for women, as there are fewer constraints to domestic violence. A shortage of women leads to better treatment of wives, as people become more careful not to lose a wife. However in situations of shortage, a small proportion of women may be subject to new types of violence such as being kidnapped for marriage. Ironically, then, higher levels of discrimination against girls can help reduce violence against women. When women are in short supply, their treatment improves. But their autonomy can increase only with fundamental changes in their family position, changes that are taking place only slowly. This paper-a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group-is part of a larger effort in the group to study social institutions and development outcomes. Monica Das Gupta may be contacted at mdasguptaworldbank.org
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  • 35
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    The Slippery Slope : Explaining the Increase in Extreme Poverty in Urban Brazil, 1976 96 (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (78 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Barros, de Paes Ricardo The Slippery Slope
    Keywords: Economic Growth ; Economic Theory and Research ; Extreme Poverty ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Formal Safety Nets ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Composition ; Household Income ; Household Per Capita Income ; Income ; Income Distribution ; Income Inequality ; Inequality ; Inequality ; Labor Markets ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Measures ; Poor ; Poor Households ; Population Policies ; Poverty Incidence ; Poverty Indices ; Poverty Line ; Poverty Lines ; Poverty Measures ; Poverty Reduction ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Rural ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Protections and Labor ; Unemployment ; Economic Growth ; Economic Theory and Research ; Extreme Poverty ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Formal Safety Nets ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Composition ; Household Income ; Household Per Capita Income ; Income ; Income Distribution ; Income Inequality ; Inequality ; Inequality ; Labor Markets ; Labor Policies ; Macroeconomics and Economic Growth ; Measures ; Poor ; Poor Households ; Population Policies ; Poverty Incidence ; Poverty Indices ; Poverty Line ; Poverty Lines ; Poverty Measures ; Poverty Reduction ; Pro-Poor Growth ; Rural ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Protections and Labor ; Unemployment
    Abstract: October 1999 - During the turbulent years 1976-96, aggregate data for Brazil appear to show only small changes in mean income, inequality, and incidence of poverty - suggesting little change in the distribution of income. But a small group of urban households - excluded from formal labor markets and safety nets - was trapped in indigence. Based on welfare measured in terms of income alone, the poorest part of urban Brazil has experienced two lost decades. Despite tremendous macroeconomic instability in Brazil, the country's distributions of urban income in 1976 and 1996 appear, at first glance, deceptively similar. Mean household income per capita was stagnant, with minute accumulated growth (4.3 percent) over the two decades. The Gini coefficient hovered just above 0.59 in both years, and the incidence of poverty (relative to a poverty line of R
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  • 36
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    The Dynamics of Poverty and the Effectiveness of Poland's Safety Net (1993 96) (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (86 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Okrasa, Wlodzimierz The Dynamics of Poverty and the Effectiveness of Poland's Safety Net (1993 96)
    Keywords: Chronically Poor ; Economic Growth ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Budget ; Household Income ; Human Development ; Income ; Measures ; Poor ; Poor Households ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Dynamics ; Poverty Index ; Poverty Profile ; Poverty Reduction ; Rural ; Rural Areas ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Safety Nets and Transfers ; Savings ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Policies ; Social Programs ; Social Protections and Labor ; Temporarily Poor ; Unemployment ; Chronically Poor ; Economic Growth ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Budget ; Household Income ; Human Development ; Income ; Measures ; Poor ; Poor Households ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Poverty Dynamics ; Poverty Index ; Poverty Profile ; Poverty Reduction ; Rural ; Rural Areas ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Safety Nets and Transfers ; Savings ; Services and Transfers to Poor ; Social Policies ; Social Programs ; Social Protections and Labor ; Temporarily Poor ; Unemployment
    Abstract: November 1999 - Changes in Poland's family allowances and unemployment benefits have significant but different effects on different groups of households. In deciding on strategies to address long-term poverty, policymakers must take such differences into account. Okrasa analyzes how the incidence of household endowments and the allocation of social benefits affect families' transitions into and out of poverty. Using panel data for 1993-96 from Poland's Household Budget Survey, and a framework based on sample survival analysis techniques, Okrasa evaluates how various policies will affect households with specific characteristics that make them likely to become poor or to move out of poverty under different scenarios (including whether or not they receive a given amount of a particular type of social transfer). He also discusses how nonincome sources of welfare, such as savings, credits, and loans, affect the likelihood that families will become or stop being poor. He concludes that family allowances and unemployment benefits, the two major social programs analyzed, have significant but different effects on different groups of households (characterized in terms of the age, gender, marital status, and educational attainment of the head of household; the size, type, location, and sector of employment of the family or household; and the year in which the household fell into poverty). If the share of family allowances in total household income were reduced by 1 percent, for example, the average length of poverty would be increased by roughly 2 percent. But a 1 percent change in unemployment benefits would yield a 3 percent change in the average duration of poverty. Differences in hazard rates for various subgroups would be even greater. Households in villages were much more likely to fall into poverty than households in cities and large towns, but the poor in towns and cities had more difficulty exiting poverty. There was generally less poverty mobility among households headed by public sector employees than among those headed by employees in the private sector. Families with three or more children and one-parent families (and grandparents with children) faced the greatest risk of being poor; single-person households and childless married couples were the least endangered. Small nuclear families with one or two children and families without children fell between these two extremes. This paper - a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to analyze the dynamics of poverty and the effectiveness of the safety net. The study was funded by the Bank's Research Support Budget under the research project Household Welfare Change during the Transition (RPO 681-21). The author may be contacted at wokrasaworldbank.org
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  • 37
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    Single Mothers in Russia : Household Strategies for Coping with Poverty (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (32 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Lokshin, Michael Single Mothers in Russia
    Keywords: Child Care ; Childbearing ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Divorce ; Family Income ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Gender ; Gender and Law ; Health Care ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Infant ; Infant Health ; Labor Market ; Law and Development ; Male Mortality ; Mother ; Nutrition ; Opportunities For Women ; Population ; Population Center ; Population Policies ; Population and Development ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Safety Net ; Single Mothers ; Single-Parent Families ; Single-Parent Households ; Social Concern ; Social Development ; Social Inclusion and Institutions ; Child Care ; Childbearing ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Divorce ; Family Income ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Gender ; Gender and Law ; Health Care ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Infant ; Infant Health ; Labor Market ; Law and Development ; Male Mortality ; Mother ; Nutrition ; Opportunities For Women ; Population ; Population Center ; Population Policies ; Population and Development ; Poverty ; Poverty Reduction ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Safety Net ; Single Mothers ; Single-Parent Families ; Single-Parent Households ; Social Concern ; Social Development ; Social Inclusion and Institutions
    Abstract: March 2000 - Because of the decline in government assistance that accompanied economic reform in Russia, single mothers there - facing a greater risk of poverty - are increasingly choosing to live with other adults or relatives. Lokshin, Harris, and Popkin describe trends in single parenthood in Russia, examining factors that affect living arrangements in single-mother families. Before economic reform, single mothers and their children were somewhat protected from poverty by government assistance (income support, subsidized child care, and full employment guarantees). Economic reform in Russia has reduced government transfers, eliminated publicly subsidized preschool care programs, and worsened women's opportunities in the labor market. The loss of government support has eroded family stability and left single mothers at increased risk of poverty. Over the last decade, the proportion of households headed by women has increased rapidly, raising the risk of poverty. Single-parent families now represent nearly a quarter of all Russian households. Using seven rounds of data from the Russian Longitudinal Monitoring Survey, the authors investigate how household living arrangements and other factors affect income in single-mother families. They find that a single parent with more earning power and child benefits is more likely not to live with relatives. But single mothers are increasingly choosing to live with other adults or relatives to survive and to raise their children in times of economic stress and uncertainty. Half of all single mothers in Russia live with their parents, their adult siblings, or other adult relatives. Help from relatives is important to single-mother families, and that help - including the sharing of domestic and child-care duties - is more efficient and productive when the single parent lives with the family. The other half live in independent residences and face increased risk of poverty. This paper - a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to understand the mechanisms used by households in transition economies to cope with poverty
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  • 38
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    Child Care and Women's Labor Force Participation in Romania (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (36 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Lokshin, Michael Child Care and Women's Labor Force Participation in Romania
    Keywords: Age ; Child Care ; Child Development ; Children ; Children and Youth ; Early Childhood ; Education ; Employment Of Women ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Gender ; Gender and Law ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Human Capital ; Labor Force ; Labor Markets ; Labor Policies ; Labor Supply ; Law and Development ; Mother ; Nutrition ; Physical Health ; Policy ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Primary Education ; Respect ; Social Protections and Labor ; Street Children ; Urban Development ; Wages ; Workforce ; Working Mothers ; Young Women ; Youth and Government ; Age ; Child Care ; Child Development ; Children ; Children and Youth ; Early Childhood ; Education ; Employment Of Women ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Gender ; Gender and Law ; Health Systems Development and Reform ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Income ; Human Capital ; Labor Force ; Labor Markets ; Labor Policies ; Labor Supply ; Law and Development ; Mother ; Nutrition ; Physical Health ; Policy ; Population Policies ; Poverty ; Primary Education ; Respect ; Social Protections and Labor ; Street Children ; Urban Development ; Wages ; Workforce ; Working Mothers ; Young Women ; Youth and Government
    Abstract: July 2000 - In Romania both the maternal decision to take a job and the decision to use out-of-home care are sensitive to the price of child care as well as to the potential market wage of the mother. A decrease in the price of child care can increase the number of mothers in the labor force and thus reduce poverty in some households. Fong and Lokshin model the household demand for child care, the mother's participation in the labor force, and her working hours in Romania. Their model estimates the effects of the price of child care, the mother's wage, and household income on household behavior relating to child care and mothers working outside the home. They find that: · Both the maternal decision to take a job and the decision to use out-of-home care are sensitive to the price of child care. A decrease in the price of child care can increase the number of mothers who work and thus reduce poverty in some households. · The potential market wage of the mother has a significant positive effect on the decision to purchase market care and the decision to engage in paid employment. · The level of household nonwage income has little effect on maternal employment and the demand for child care. In addition to facilitating women's work, kindergartens and crèches appear to provide educational and social benefits for children. Close to half the children in these facilities have mothers who do not work. Further research is needed to assess the cost and nature of these benefits and to determine the appropriate roles for the private and public sectors in providing, financing, and regulating such services for working and nonworking mothers. This paper-a product of Poverty and Human Resources, Development Research Group-is part of a larger effort in the group to understand the role of gender in the context of the household, institutions, and society. Michael Lokshin may be contacted at mlokshinworldbank.org
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  • 39
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    The Distribution of Mexico's Public Spending on Education (1999)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (20 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Parallel Title: Salinas, Angel The Distribution of Mexico's Public Spending on Education
    Keywords: Access and Equity in Basic Education ; Cred Earnings ; Debt Markets ; Education ; Education ; Education for All ; Effective Schools and Teachers ; Finance ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Financial Sector ; Gender ; Gender and Education ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Expenditure ; Income ; Income Groups ; Information ; Investments ; Level Of Education ; Loan Programs ; Population Policies ; Primary Education ; Primary Education ; Public Expenditures ; Public Sector Expenditure Analysis and Management ; Spending ; Student ; Student Loan ; Students ; Subsidies ; Subsidy ; Tertiary Education ; Access and Equity in Basic Education ; Cred Earnings ; Debt Markets ; Education ; Education ; Education for All ; Effective Schools and Teachers ; Finance ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Financial Sector ; Gender ; Gender and Education ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Household Expenditure ; Income ; Income Groups ; Information ; Investments ; Level Of Education ; Loan Programs ; Population Policies ; Primary Education ; Primary Education ; Public Expenditures ; Public Sector Expenditure Analysis and Management ; Spending ; Student ; Student Loan ; Students ; Subsidies ; Subsidy ; Tertiary Education
    Abstract: July 2000 - Public spending on tertiary education in Mexico is strongly regressive, benefiting mainly the nonpoor in urban areas. To give the poor a chance at higher education, student loan programs or means-tested financial aid and scholarship programs (though rarely devoid of subsidy) are preferable to free education services, because loan and aid programs target the students who suffer from the financial market's failure to provide long-term loans for higher education. Research shows that education has played a crucial role in raising levels of earnings and that returns to education in Mexico have increased, particularly in higher education and in the upper tail of the conditional earnings distribution. Lopez-Acevedo and Salinas examine patterns of public spending on education in the face of further increases in earnings inequality. They analyze the incidence of benefits using two sets of data: data on unit costs per student by state and by education level, and data from surveys on household income and spending. Among their findings: · Nationally, the poorest income groups get most of the national and state subsidy for primary education. At higher education levels the poor get progressively smaller subsidies. · For all Mexico, government spending on primary education is very progressive. In lower secondary education it is neutral. And in upper secondary education it benefits mainly the middle and upper classes. Tertiary education is strongly regressive, benefiting mainly the richest deciles and mainly in urban areas. · But those government patterns vary by region. In the central region average total spending is more uniformly distributed than the national pattern. In the northern region the subsidy is progressive. Primary education is neutral and higher levels of instruction are moderately regressive. In the central region primary schooling is very progressive, while lower secondary schooling is almost neutral. Upper secondary and tertiary instruction strongly benefit the richest income deciles. In the southern region basic (primary and lower secondary) education is very progressive, upper secondary education is neutral, and tertiary education is highly regressive. In Mexico City all levels of education except primary are strongly regressive. Lopez-Acevedo and Salinas show that public spending at the tertiary level is more regressive than household spending. So much of public spending on tertiary education favors nonpoor families in urban areas that to reallocate the spending so that poor students have a chance to participate would require developing credit markets for higher education. The government's role should be to help overcome market failures in the financial sector, which limit the availability of long-term financing for higher education. These failures can be corrected through student loan programs or means-tested financial aid and scholarship programs. Such programs are rarely devoid of subsidy but are preferable to the direct, cost-free provision of services because the subsidy is targeted more closely to the source of market failure. This paper-a product of the Economic Policy Sector Unit and Mexico Country Office, Latin America and the Caribbean Region-is part of a strategy to reduce poverty and inequality in Mexico. The study was part of the research project Earnings Inequality after Mexico's Economic Reforms. The authors may be contacted at gacevedoworldbank.org or asalinas@worldbank.org
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  • 40
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    Household responses to poverty and vulnerability. Vol. 1, confronting crisis in Cisne Dos, Guayaquil, Ecuador (1997)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    ISBN: 0821338471 , 9780821338476
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (160 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Keywords: Access to Finance ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Population Policies ; Poverty Reduction ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction ; Access to Finance ; Communities & Human Settlements ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Housing and Human Habitats ; Population Policies ; Poverty Reduction ; Rural Development ; Rural Poverty Reduction
    Abstract: This case study presents the main findings from the community of Cisne Dos, in Guayaquil, Ecuador. The study explored how poor households respond to changes in economic circumstances and labor market conditions, what strategies they adopt to limit the impact of shocks and generate additional resources, and what constraints impede their actions. Three features distinguish this study from other poverty studies:a micro-level approach combining households and communities as the main units of analysis, an unusually long period of observation for some communities and households, and a comparative framework offering fours cases with very different economic development levels and institutional contexts. The study concludes with some priority recommendations for action:1) support households in their role as safety net; 2) alleviate constraints on women's labor supply; 3) ensure that social capital is not taken for granted; 4) develop social policy that integrates human capital and social capital; 5) pursue further research; and 6) develop tools and indicators to strengthen the assets of the poor
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    Bibliography of publications : Technical Department, Africa Region, July 1987 to April 1996 (1996)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    ISBN: 0821336967 , 9780821336960
    Language: English
    Pages: Online-Ressource (1 online resource (72 p.))
    Edition: Online-Ausg. World Bank E-Library Archive
    Keywords: Banks and Banking Reform ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Population Policies ; Rural Development Knowledge and Information Systems ; Banks and Banking Reform ; Environment ; Environmental Economics and Policies ; Finance and Financial Sector Development ; Financial Literacy ; Health, Nutrition and Population ; Population Policies ; Rural Development Knowledge and Information Systems
    Abstract: This Bibliography of Publications of the Technical Department, Africa Region of the World Bank makes available a complete list of all formal and informal publications produced by the staff and consultants of the Africa Technical Department from July 1987 through April 1996. The publications cover the Technical Department's work in Africa in all sectors
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