Abstract: Prior Probabilities and Counterfactual Conditionals -- Incomplete Descriptions in the Language of Probability Theory -- A Computational Complexity Viewpoint on the Stability of Relative Frequency and on Stochastic Independence -- A Logic for Subjective Belief -- Discussion -- Rational Belief Change, Popper Functions and Counterfactuals -- Letter by Robert Stalnaker to W. L. Harper -- Ramsey Test Conditionals and Iterated Belief Change (A Response to Stalnaker) -- Toward an Optimization Procedure for Applying Minimum Change Principles in Probability Kinematics -- Simplicity -- Discussion -- Conditionalization, Observation, and Change of Preference -- Discussion -- Probabilities of Conditionals -- Discussion -- Letter by Stalnaker to Van Fraassen -- Letter by Van Fraassen to Stalnaker.

Abstract: In May of 1973 we organized an international research colloquium on foundations of probability, statistics, and statistical theories of science at the University of Western Ontario. During the past four decades there have been striking formal advances in our understanding of logic, semantics and algebraic structure in probabilistic and statistical theories. These advances, which include the development of the relations between semantics and metamathematics, between logics and algebras and the algebraic-geometrical foundations of statistical theories (especially in the sciences), have led to striking new insights into the formal and conceptual structure of probability and statistical theory and their scientific applications in the form of scientific theory. The foundations of statistics are in a state of profound conflict. Fisher's objections to some aspects of Neyman-Pearson statistics have long been well known. More recently the emergence of Baysian statistics as a radical alternative to standard views has made the conflict especially acute. In recent years the response of many practising statisticians to the conflict has been an eclectic approach to statistical inference. Many good statisticians have developed a kind of wisdom which enables them to know which problems are most appropriately handled by each of the methods available. The search for principles which would explain why each of the methods works where it does and fails where it does offers a fruitful approach to the controversy over foundations.

Abstract: The philosophy of biology, some claim, should move to the centre of philosophy of science - a place it has not been accorded since the time of Mach. Physics was the paradigm of science, and its shadow falls across contemporary philosophy of biology in a variety of contexts: reduction, organization and system, biochemical mechanism, and the models of law and explanation which are derived from the Duhem-Popper-Hempel tradition. In this volume, the editors present essays which probe such historical and methodological questions as reducibility, levels of organization, function and teleology, issues emerging from evolutionary theory, and the species problem. The volume offers ample evidence of how good contemporary work in the philosophical understanding of biology has become. The editors aptly combine a deep philosophical appreciation of conceptual issues in biology with an historical understanding of the radical changes in the science of biology since the 19th century

Abstract: I / Aristotle’s Program -- I. The Unprovability of the Law of Non-Contradiction -- II. Arguing ‘by Way of Refutation’ -- II / The First Refutation: General Structure -- I. The Plot of the Argument -- II. On the General Strategy -- III. Where Antiphasis Might Balk -- IV. Where Antiphasis Does Balk: Two Sub-Plots -- V. Summary -- III / ON Antiphasis’ Character and Upbringing -- I. Antiphasis’ Thesis -- II. Some Sophistry -- IV / The First Refutation: The Treatment of Antiphasis -- I. On Contradiction -- II. Uttering and Signifying -- III. Signifying and Defining -- IV. Conclusion -- V / The Second Refutation -- I. On Substances, Essences, and Why We Need Them -- II. Antiphasis’ Commitments as to Essences -- VI / On Sense and Essence -- I. Subjects and Predicates; Essences and Accidents -- II. Essence and Falsehood -- III. Words and Essences -- VII / Conclusion -- Index Locorum -- (a) Plato -- (b) Aristotle -- (c) Other Ancient Authors.

Abstract: This study began as a paper. It got out of hand. It had help doing that. Oswaldo Chateaubriand, Ronald Haver, Paul Horwich, Bernie Katz, Norman Kretzmann, Stanley Martens, Stephen Pink, Michael Stokes, Eleanor Stump, Bill Ulrich, Celia Wolf, and a lot of other people questioned or criticized or helped reformulate one or another of the arguments and interpretations along the way. In spite of (maybe partly because of) their efforts, the book is full of mistakes. At least, induction over previous drafts indicates that irresistibly. But I do not, right now, know of any particular mistakes. All but a couple of the translations are mine (the exceptions are noted). That is not because existing translations are bad, but because some uniformity was essential. The translations often make unpleasant reading. So, often, does Aristotle; I have tried to be literal. A text and translation of the passage on which the book centers is in Appendix III. Footnotes cite literature by author and (sometimes abbreviated) title. Details are in the bibliography. I do not profess to have covered all the literature. An enormous amount of editorial work was done by Margaret Mundy. She was not able to undo the errors that remain. In particular, the footnotes are often numbered oddly: '4', '4a', '4b', etc.

Abstract: I D’un Siècle à L’Autre -- 1. De Brusselse Kamer “Den Boeck” op het Gentse Rederijkersfeest van 1539 -- 2. Carel van Mander, trait d’union entre Nord et Sud -- 3. Vondel und Gustav-Adolf -- 4. La souffrance dans l’œuvre lyrique d’Henriette Roland Holst -- 5. L’expressionnisme sur la scène flamande: Herman Teirlinck -- 6. Anton van Duinkerken als Stilist -- II Par Delà les Frontières -- 7. Le Cercle de Muiden (1609-1647) et la culture française -- 8. Le séjour en France de Wolff et Deken (1788-1797) -- 9. Potgieter et la littérature suédoise -- 10. Les Pays-Bas vus par Hoffmann von Fallersieben -- 11. Un ambassadeur de la culture française en Hollande: Frans Erens -- 12. Jan Greshoff le francophile -- Références -- Tabula Gratulatoria.

Abstract: I / Preliminary Distinctions -- 1. Language and Linguistic Utterances -- 2. Descriptive Statements -- 3. The Use and Mention of Signs -- II / Theories of Meaning -- 1. Realistic Semantic Theories -- 2. Behavioristic Theories of Meaning -- 3. Quine’s Philosophy of Language -- 4. Wittgenstein’s Philosophy of Language in the Philosophical Investigations -- III / Theories of Grammar -- 1. Traditional Grammar -- 2. Logical Grammar -- 3. Generative Grammar -- IV / Language and Reality -- 1. The Thesis of the Role Language Plays in Experience -- 2. The Role of Vocabulary -- 3. The Role of Grammar -- 4. The Epistemological Problematic of the Relativity Thesis -- Index of Subjects -- Index of Logical Symbols.

Abstract: This book has arisen out of lectures I gave in recent years at the Uni­ versities of Munich and Regensburg, and it is intended to serve as a textbook for courses in the Philosophy of Language. In my lectures I was able to presuppose that the students had taken an introductory course in logic. Some knowledge of logic will also be helpful in studying this book - as it is almost everywhere else in philosophy -, especially in Section 3. 2, but it is no prerequisite. I would like to give my sincere thanks to Prof. Terrell for his excellent translation of the book, which is based on the second, revised and en­ larged German edition. Regensburg, May 1975 FRANZ VON KUTSCHERA INTRODUCTION Language has become one of philosophy's most important and pressing themes during this century. This preoccupation with language has its ori­ gins in the most diverse areas of philosophical inquiry.

Abstract: 1 Introduction -- 1.1 What is Selectivity? -- 1.2 The aims and accomplishments of Selectivity -- References -- 2 Three principles that control selectivity -- 3 Steps in the correlation of structure with biological activity -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 The first correlations -- 3.3 The concept of ‘receptors’ -- 3.4 The receptor as an enzyme or permease -- 3.5 The receptor as a nucleic acid -- 3.6 The receptor as a coenzyme, or other small molecule -- 3.7 Other aspects of receptors -- 3.8 Targets that are not necessarily receptors -- 3.9 Regression analysis -- 3.10 Conclusion -- References -- 4 Favourable differences in distribution: the first principle of selectivity -- 4.1 Some examples -- 4.2 Qualitative aspects of distribution -- 4.3 Quantitative aspects of distribution -- 4.4 The permeability of natural membranes -- 4.5 Metabolic change leading to activation -- 4.6 Metabolic change leading to inactivation -- 4.7 Synergism and antagonism -- 4.8 Conclusion -- References -- 5 Favourable differences in biochemistry: the second principle of selectivity -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Analogous enzymes -- 5.3 More analogous enzymes: the dihydrofolate reductases -- 5.4 Absence of enzymes from one of the species I. The sulphonamides and organophosphates -- 5.5 Absence of enzymes. II Further examples -- 5.6 Metabolite analogues (mostly antagonists) -- 5.7 Other utilizable biochemical differences -- 5.8 Conclusion -- References -- 6 Favourable differences in cell structure: the third principle of selectivity -- References -- 7 Acquired resistance to drugs: the loss of selectivity.

Abstract: 1. 1 What is Selectivity? purpose, and crop protective agent for the A biologically-active substance is said to be second, but there is no fundamental difference selective if it strongly affects certain cells with­ of principle in their mode of action. out causing any change in others, even when the Drug therapy has two, fundamentally two kinds of cells are close neighbours. In living opposed divisions. The first of these strives to organisms, there are many substances, often improve the action of one of the cell's natural quite small molecules, which have been chosen agents by modifying the molecule in order to for their specificity. This choice has been made localize or intensify its action. For instance, under the strong pressure of natural selection, the solubility can be decreased to make it form unhurried by any consideration of time. Such a deposit, or a change is made so that it becomes chemical compounds operate the metabolism a poorer fit on the naturally-occurring destruc­ of the cells and tissues, and ensure their health, tive enzyme. Both of these devices have proved survival, and reproduction. Important among useful in therapy, e. g. with steroid hormones. the smaller of these selective molecules are Such drugs, which seek to improve on Nature vitamins, coenzymes, hormones, neurotrans­ by performing more desirably, are called mitters, inorganic ions, nutritional fragments, agonists.

Abstract: Preface -- One -- to Part One -- Two -- to Part Two -- Appendixes, By Benjamin Suchoff -- I. Addenda -- II. Lexicographical Index Of Melodies.

Abstract: n the first volume of Rumanian Folk Music (Instrumental Melodies) I portions of Bela Bart6k's subsequently-discarded preface, concern­ ing the fate of his folklore publications, are presented in explanation of the editorial processes necessary for achieving the publication. 1 By way of introduction to this revised edition of a previous, although in­ complete, published version of the Rumanian Carols and Christmas Songs (Colinde), we refer again to the author's suppressed lines which pertain to this volume: The second publication by the same publisher was to include my collection of Rumanian Colindas (Winter-solstice songs). Their extremely interesting texts were supposed to appear in original as well as in English. After several years of delay, the translation to English prose was completed, one part in adequate archaic English, the rest (by someone else) in most unsuitable Kitchen-English. The publisher did not wish to change this, though. Result: I published the book at my own expense; however, only the musical part, because of lack of sufficient funds. The texts are still in manuscript, even today. 2 Our primary aim, therefore, has been to unite the Rumanian poetic texts and translations with the musical part, in one volume, as was the desire of the author.

Abstract: One To The Things (Essays on Phenomenolology) -- A. On the Meaning of Phenomenology -- 1. “Phenomenology” -- 2. Ways into phenomenology: phenomenology and metaphenomenology -- 3. A new way into phenomenology: the workshop approach -- 4. Phenomenology through vicarious experience -- 5. Existential uses of phenomenology -- 〉B. On the Rights of Phenomenology -- 6. How subjective is phenomenology? -- 7. Phenomenology of direct evidence (self-evidence) -- 8. Criteria in phenomenology -- 9. The Phenomenon of reality and reality -- Two At the Things (Essays in Phenomenology) -- 10. Toward a phenomenology of experience -- 11. A phenomenological analysis of approval -- 12. “We”: A linguistic and phenomenological analysis -- 13. The relevance of phenomenological philosophy for psychology -- 14. The idea of a phenomenological anthropology and Alexander Pfänder’s psychology of man -- 15. Change of perspectives: constitution of a Husserl image -- Index of names -- Index of subjects.

Abstract: Substantial encouragement for this volume came from the editors and readers of the Studies for Phenomenological and Existential Philosophy (SPEP) at Northwestern University Press. But its publi­ cation has been made possible only by the unqualified and un­ abridged acceptance of the Editorial Board of Phaenomen%gica, which at the time was still headed by its founder, the late Professor H. L. Van Breda, who welcomed the manuscript most generously. This makes his untimely passing even more grievous to me. The stylistic copy editing and proof reading were handled ef­ ficiently by Ruth Nichols Jackson, secretary of the Philosophy Department. In the proof reading I also had the able help of my colleague Stanley Paulson. I dedicate this book to the memory of my late brother, Dr. chern. Erwin Spiegelberg, at the time of his death assistant professor at the University of Rio de Janeiro, who preceded me by two years in emigrating from Nazi Germany. When in 1938 he put an end to his life in an apparent depression, he also did so in order not to become a burden to his brothers, who were on the point of following him. Whatever I, more privileged in health and in opportunities in the country of my adoption, have been able to do and achieve since then has been done with a sense of a debt to him and of trying to live and work for him too.

Abstract: Dickinson S. Miller On Analysis, Pragmatism, and Welfare - An Introduction -- Teachers and Teaching -- Fullerton and Philosophy -- A Student’s Impressions of William James -- James and Analysis -- George Santayana -- Is Philosophy a Good Training for the Mind? -- Analysis: The Method of Philosophy at Work -- The Relations of ‘Ought’ and ‘Is’ -- Free Will as Involving Determination and Inconceivable Without It [Revised] -- Is There Not a Clear Solution of the Knowledge-Problem? -- A Debt to James -- Universals -- An Event In Modern Philosophy with Hume -- Hume’s Deathblow to Deductivism -- Moral Truth -- Religion and Human Welfare -- What Religion Has To Do With It -- The Defense of the Faith Today -- Heart and Head -- Democracy and Our Intellectual Plight -- Matthew Arnold, On the Occasion of His Centenary -- Conscience and the Bishops -- James’s Doctrine of ‘The Right to Believe’[Revised] -- Morals, Intelligence, and Welfare -- Published Writings of Dickinson S. Miller -- Publications about Dickinson S. Miller.

Abstract: When I was Dickinson Miller's assistant from 1940 to 1942, I soon realized that I had encountered an unusually powerful, acute, and original mind and a writer whose clear but vivid style matched the high quality of his intelligence. These traits were apparent in his comments about eminent philosophers with whom he had associated - particularly William James but also Santayana, Dewey, Husserl, and Wittgenstein - and in the mutual criticism he demanded of his writing and my first efforts. I was pleased and felt immensely privileged to share in his planning of a book devoted to "analysis, the method of philosophy at work" as in his articles on the knowledge-problem, induction, and free will. In view of the penetration of his articles, such a book seemed long overdue as James had insisted even in 1905. When Miller's projected book on "analysis at work" did not appear by 1956, I consulted him about putting together a collection of his published essays. Such a collection seemed but slight homage to one who had made such a striking contribution to American philosophy in rela­ tion to James and one from whom I had learned so much. He felt, however, that such a collection would be inappropriate and preferred to concentrate on a book, never finished, on "the principles of practical intelligence", the application of intelligence in a "morality of results" for human welfare.

Abstract: I. Methodological Orientation -- Epistemic Logic and the Methods of Philosophical Analysis -- II. The Logic of Existence -- Existential Presuppositions and Their Elimination -- On the Logic of the Ontological Argument: Some Elementary Remarks -- III. The Semantics of Modality -- Modality and Quantification -- The Modes of Modality -- Semantics for Propositional Attitudes -- Existential Presuppositions and Uniqueness Presuppositions -- IV. Conceptual Analyses -- On the Logic of Perception -- Deontic Logic and Its Philosophical Morals -- Note on the Origin of the Different Essays -- Index of Names -- Index of Subjects.

Abstract: The papers collected in this volume were written over a period of some eight or nine years, with some still earlier material incorporated in one of them. Publishing them under the same cover does not make a con­ tinuous book of them. The papers are thematically connected with each other, however, in a way which has led me to think that they can naturally be grouped together. In any list of philosophically important concepts, those falling within the range of application of modal logic will rank high in interest. They include necessity, possibility, obligation, permission, knowledge, belief, perception, memory, hoping, and striving, to mention just a few of the more obvious ones. When a satisfactory semantics (in the sense of Tarski and Carnap) was first developed for modal logic, a fascinating new set of methods and ideas was thus made available for philosophical studies. The pioneers of this model theory of modality include prominently Stig Kanger and Saul Kripke. Several others were working in the same area independently and more or less concurrently. Some of the older papers in this collection, especially 'Quantification and Modality' and 'Modes of Modality', serve to clarify some of the main possibilities in the semantics of modal logics in general.

Abstract: I. Marxism -- Communism and the New Marxists -- Contemporary Problems of Dialectical Materialism -- Marxist Philosophy in Czechoslovakia : The Lessons from Prague -- Marxist Philosophy in Yugoslavia : ThePraxis Group -- II. Religion -- Reluctant Bedfellows : The Catholic Church and the Polish State, 1918–1939 -- The Catholic Church and the Soviet Government in Soviet Occupied East Europe, 1939–1940 -- The Suppressed Church: Ukrainian Catholics in the Soviet Union -- Muslim Religious Dissent in the U.S.S.R. -- Religious Dissent in the U.S.S.R.: Lithuanian Catholics.

Abstract: Since the Bolshevik revolution of 1917, two of the most significant but at the same time least understood areas of that revolution's cultural impact have been philosophy and religion. The impact has of course been massive, not only in the Soviet Union but, after the second World War, in Soviet­ dominated Eastern Europe as well. Yet the consequences of Communism for philosophy and religion throughout the Soviet orbit are far from having the simplicity suggested by the stereotypes of a single, monolithic 'Marxism' and a consistent, crushing assault on the Church and on re­ ligious faith. Unquestionably Marxism is the ruling philosophy throughout Eastern Europe. In the Soviet Union, 'Marxism-Leninism' or 'dialectical ma­ terialism' is the official and the only tolerated philosophy, and most of the other countries of Eastern Europe follow the Soviet lead in philosophy as in other fields. But in the latter countries Marxism was imposed only after W orId War II, and its deVelopment has not always copied the Soviet model. Original thinkers in Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Hungary have thought their own way through the writings of Marx and his followers, and have arrived at Marxist positions which are consider­ ably at variance with the Soviet interpretations - and often with each other. Moreover in recent years the Soviet philosophers themselves have been unable to ignore the theoretical questions raised by the other East of Marxism in the West.

Abstract: The Logic of Quantum Mechanics (1936) -- The Logic of Complementarity and the Foundation of Quantum Theory (1972) -- Mathematics as Logical Syntax — A Method to Formalize the Language of a Physical Theory (1937–38) -- Three-Valued Logic and the Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics (1944) -- Three-Valued Logic (1957) -- Reichenbach’s Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics (1958) -- Measures on the Closed Subspaces of a Hilbert Space (1957) -- The Logic of Propositions Which are not Simultaneously Decidable (1960) -- Baer *-Semigroups (1960) -- Axioms for Non-Relativistic Quantum Mechanics (1961) -- Probability in Physics and a Theorem on Simultaneous Observability (1962) -- Semantic Representation of the Probability of Formulas in Formalized Theories (1963) -- The Structure of the Propositional Calculus of a Physical Theory (1964) -- Boolean Embeddings of Orthomodular Sets and Quantum Logic (1965) -- Logical Structures Arising in Quantum Theory (1965) -- The Calculus of Partial Propositional Functions (1965) -- The Problem of Hidden Variables in Quantum Mechanics (1967) -- Logics Appropriate to Empirical Theories (1965) -- The Probabilistic Argument for a Non-Classical Logic of Quantum Mechanics (1966) -- Foundations of Quantum Mechanics (1967) -- Baer *-Semigroups and the Logic of Quantum Mechanics (1968) -- Semimodularity and the Logic of Quantum Mechanics (1968) -- On the Structure of Quantum Logic (1969) -- On the Structure of Quantal Proposition Systems (1969) -- The Current Interest in Orthomodular Lattices (1970) -- Integration Theory of Observables (1970) -- Probabilistic Formulation of Classical Mechanics (1970) -- Atomicity and Determinism in Boolean Systems (1971) -- Survey of General Quantum Physics (1972) -- Quantum Logics (1974) -- The Labyrinth of Quantum Logics (1974).

Abstract: The twentieth century has witnessed a striking transformation in the un­ derstanding of the theories of mathematical physics. There has emerged clearly the idea that physical theories are significantly characterized by their abstract mathematical structure. This is in opposition to the tradi­ tional opinion that one should look to the specific applications of a theory in order to understand it. One might with reason now espouse the view that to understand the deeper character of a theory one must know its abstract structure and understand the significance of that struc­ ture, while to understand how a theory might be modified in light of its experimental inadequacies one must be intimately acquainted with how it is applied. Quantum theory itself has gone through a development this century which illustrates strikingly the shifting perspective. From a collection of intuitive physical maneuvers under Bohr, through a formative stage in which the mathematical framework was bifurcated (between Schrödinger and Heisenberg) to an elegant culmination in von Neumann's Hilbert space formulation the elementary theory moved, flanked even at the later stage by the ill-understood formalisms for the relativistic version and for the field-theoretic altemative; after that we have a gradual, but constant, elaboration of all these quantal theories as abstract mathematical struc­ tures (their point of departure being von Neumann's formalism) until at the present time theoretical work is heavily preoccupied with the manip­ ulation of purely abstract structures.

Abstract: A Tribute -- I. Epistemology -- Chisholm on Sensing and Perceiving -- Testimonial Evidence -- Reason and Consistency -- Epistemic Values and Epistemic Viewpoints -- Confirmation, Explanation and Acceptance -- ‘I Know that I Am in Pain’ is Senseless -- Knowledge and the Self-Presenting -- II. Metaphysics -- Scattered Objects -- Hume on Causation -- Brentanist Relations -- Events as Recurrables -- III. Ethics -- On Doxastic Responsibility -- World Utilitarianism -- Some Definitions for the Theory of Rules -- Suicide: Some Epistemological Considerations -- Bibliography of R. M. Chisholm -- Index of Names -- Index of Subjects.

Abstract: AND BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH This collection of essays in honor of Roderick M. Chisholm is the work of his former students. The book was conceived and the original con­ tributors invited by Richard Taylor. We restricted the contributors to former students of Chisholm as a special tribute to his acknowledged as a teacher of philosophy. The profundity of his contributions to genius epistemology and metaphysics are acknowledged throughout the phil­ osophical world. Those who have been present at his lectures and semi­ nars, who have been incited to philosophical cerebration by the clarity and precision of his exposition, know that his impact on contemporary philosophy far exceeds the influence of the written word. It is, we think, appropriate that his students should reserve for themselves the privilege of honoring Chisholm in this way as his 60th birthday draws near. The tribute paid to Chisholm in Taylor's essay conveys a personal impression. I shall, consequently, refrain from personal reminiscence here, and instead, mention some of the highlights of an illustrious life. Chisholm was born on November 27, 1916 in North Attleboro, Massachu­ setts. He married Eleanor F. Parker in 1943 and raised three children with her. He received an A. B. from Brown in 1938, a Ph. D. from Harvard in 1942, and served in the U. S. Army from 1942 to 1946.

Abstract: The Basic Question of Philosophy -- Dialectical Materialism -- I. The Object of Dialectical Materialism -- II. The Origins of Diamat -- III. The Leninist Stage in the Development of Diamat -- IV. Matter and Consciousness -- V. The Dialectic of the Cognitive Process -- VI. The Dialectic as Logic and Theory of Knowledge -- VII. The Categories and Laws of the Dialectic -- VIII. Dialectical Materialism and Modern Science -- IX. The Unity of Diamat and Histomat -- X. Diamat and Histomat as Conceptual Tools of the Marxist Party -- XI. Diamat and Contemporary Bourgeois Philosophy -- XII. Diamat and the Present -- Matter -- Consciousness -- I. The History of Views on Consciousness -- II. The Material Base and the Ideal Essence of Consciousness -- III. The Activity of Consciousness. Consciousness and Reality -- IV. The Structure of Consciousness. Psyche and Consciousness. Consciousness and Self-Consciousness -- V. The Emergence of Consciousness and Its Biological Prerequisites -- VI. The Social Essence of Consciousness. Individual and Social Consciousness -- Dialectical Logic -- I. The Object of Dialectical Logic and Its Tasks -- II. The History of Dialectical Logic -- III. Dialectic Logic in Bourgeois Philosophy at the Turn of This Century -- IV. Dialectical Logic in Soviet Philosophy -- V. The Basic Principles and Laws of Dialectical Logic -- VI. On the System of Dialectical Categories -- VII. On the Dialectic of Categories -- Psychology -- I. The History of Foreign Psychology -- II. The History of Soviet Psychology -- Science -- I. The Concept of ‘Science’ -- II. The General Characteristics of Science -- III. The Object, Methods and Structure of Scientific Knowledge -- IV. The Social Essence of Science -- V. The Laws of the Development of Science -- VI. Conditions and Tendencies in the Development of Contemporary Science -- Historical Materialism -- I. The Social-Economic Presuppositions of the Emergence of Histomat -- II. The Conceptual Presuppositions of the Emergence of Histomat -- III. Diamat and Histomat. Specificity of the Laws of Social Life -- IV. The Social-Economic Formation -- V. The People as Creator of History -- VI. The Historical Laws and Conscious Human Activity. Necessity and Freedom -- VII. The Leninist Stage in the Development of Histomat -- VIII. Histomat’s Partisanship. Histomat and Modern Bourgeois Sociology -- IX. The Idealist and Reactionary Character of Bourgeois Sociology -- Political Economy -- Ethics -- I. The Origin of the Term and the Notion -- II. The Object and Tasks -- III. The Basic Problems of Ethics and Types of Ethical Theory -- IV. Marxist Ethics -- Esthetics -- I. The History of Esthetics -- II. Esthetics in Russia -- III. Emergence and Development of Marxist Esthetics -- IV. The Esthetic as Object of Esthetics -- Index of Names.

Abstract: The Soviet philosophical scene has experienced remarkable growth since the innovations of the 50's and the renovations of the 60's. This volume of Sovietica is intended by the editors as a finger on the pulse of the Marxist-Leninist corpus philosophicum as we enter the 1970's. Published in the years between 1960 and 1970, the Filosofskaja en­ ciklopedija (FE) has replaced the Kratkij filosofskij slovar' (Short Philo­ sophic Dictionary: 1939, 1941, 1951 and 1954) and the Filosofskij slovar' (Philosophic Dictionary: 1963). It is an impressive work - 2994 pages in five volumes (I, 1960, 504 pp.; II, 1962, 575 pp.; III, 1964, 584 pp.; IV, 1967, 591 pp.; V, 1970, 740 pp.), with the editors and authors representing all the contemporary Soviet philosophers of note. The FE has been extensively reviewed in Kommunist (1972, 5, 119-127) and in Studies in Soviet Thought [beginning with SST 12 (1972) 4]. Restrictions of space have forced us to omit much that was originally to be included. The same limitations have obliged us to deviate from the initial methodological rule which was 'to include only complete, un­ abridged articles' - in order to avoid distortion by selection. Only two articles have been shortened: only the basic portion of 'science' has been included; we have dropped 'natural science', 'sciences on man and society', and 'classification of sciences' (a total of thirteen pages in Russian) - this last with regret and with apologies to Professor Kedrov.

Abstract: I. Radical Empiricism and the Anomalies in the Knowledge of Science -- II. Troubles with the Problem of Demarcation -- III. The Context of Discovery and the Context of Justification -- IV. Facts and Theories: Radical Empiricism -- V. Facts and Theories: Conventionalism -- VI. Reformation and Counter-reformation: Paradigms and Research Programs -- VII. Revolutions in Science: The Accumulation of Knowledge and the Correspondence of Theories -- VIII. Revolutions in Science: Science and Philosophy -- Index of Names -- Index of Subjects.

Abstract: I. Islam -- Recommencements de l’algèbre aux XIe et XIIe siècles -- The Influence of Stoic Logic on Al-Ja????’s Legal Theory -- The Beginnings of Islamic Theology -- Science, Philosophy, and Religion in Alfarabi’s Enumeration of the Sciences -- II. The Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries in the Latin West -- The Organization of Sciences and the Relations of Cultures in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries -- La nouvelle idée de nature et de savoir scientifique au XIIe siècle -- Experience, Praxis, Work, and Planning in Bernard of Clairvaux: Observations on the Sermones in Cantica -- III. The Fourteenth, Fifteenth, and Sixteenth Centuries in the Latin West -- From Social into Intellectual Factors: An Aspect of the Unitary Character of Late Medieval Learning -- Autonomous and Handmaiden Science: St. Thomas Aquinas and William of Ockham on the Physics of the Eucharist -- Reformation and Revolution: Copernicus’s Discovery in an Era of Change -- Réflexions sur les rapports entre théorie et pratique au moyen âge -- Philosophy and Science in Sixteenth-Century Universities: Some Preliminary Comments.

Abstract: I. The History of De Dialectica -- II. A Quantitative Study of the Authorship of De Dialectica -- to the Text -- On Dialectic -- I. Simple Words -- II. Combined Words -- III. Simple and Combined Statements -- IV. The Parts of Dialectic -- V. Signification -- VI. The Origin of Words -- VII. The Force of Words -- VIII. Obscurity and Ambiguity -- IX. Ambiguity -- X. Equivocation -- Indexes -- A. Terms -- B. Words Discussed -- C. Names -- D. Authors Quoted -- II. Index to the Introduction, Translation, and Notes.

Abstract: I first became interested in De dialectica in 1966, while I was doing re­ search on Augustine's knowledge of logic. At the time I made a transla­ tion of the Maurist text and included it as an appendix to my doctoral dissertation (Yale, 1967). In 1971 I thoroughly revised the translation on the basis of the critical text of Wilhelm Crecelius (1857) and I have re­ cently revised it again to conform to Professor Jan Pinborg's new edition. The only previously published translation of the whole of De dialectica . is N. H. Barreau's French translation in the Oeuvres completes de Saint Augustin (1873). Thomas Stanley translated parts of Chapters Six and Nine into English as part of the account of Stoic logic in his History of Philosophy (Pt. VIII, 1656). I offer De dialectica in English in the hope that it will be of some interest to historians of logic and of the liberal arts tradition and to students of the thought of Augustine. In translating I have for the most part been as literal as is consistent with English usage. Although inclusion of the Latin text might have justified a freer translation, for example, the use of modern technical terms, it seemed better to stay close to the Latin. One of the . values in studying a work such as De dialectica is to see familiar topics discussed in a terminology not so familiar. In the translation I follow these conventions.

Abstract: Counterfactuals and Comparative Possibility -- Presuppositions -- Incomplete Assertion and Belnap Connectives -- Dimensions of Truth -- Speaking of Nothing -- The Structure of Efficacy -- Harris and Chomsky at the Syntax-Semantics Boundary -- Some Transformational Extensions of Montague Grammar -- Hedges: A Study in Meaning Criteria and the Logic of Fuzzy Concepts -- Comments: Lakoff’s Fuzzy Propositional Logic -- On the Semantics of Negation -- Verbs of Bitching.

Abstract: In 1973 a workshop was held at The University of Western Ontario on topics of common interest to philosophers and linguists. This volume con­ tains most of the papers presented at the workshop. Also included are previously unpublished essays by R. Dougherty and H. Lasnik as well as a comment on G. Lakoff's paper by B. van Fraassen. K. Donnellan's paper was presented at the workshop and subsequently appeared in The Philosophical Review. We thank the editors of this journal for permission to publish the paper here. The papers by D. Lewis, R. Stalnaker, G. Lakoff, B. Partee and H. Herzberger appeared earlier in Journal of Philosophical Logic by arrangement of the editors with B. van Fraassen and D. Reidel Publishing Company. The editors thank the officers of The University of Western Ontario for making the workshop possible and Pauline Campbell for making the workshop work. THE EDITORS DAVID LEWIS COUNTERFACTUALS AND COMPARATIVE POSSIBILITY* In the last dozen years or so, our understanding of modality has been much improved by means of possible-world semantics: the project of analyzing modal language by systematically specifying the conditions under which a modal sentence is true at a possible world. I hope to do the same for counterfactual conditionals. I write A 0-C for the counter­ factual conditional with antecedent A and consequent C. It may be read as 'H it were the case that A, then it would be the case that C' or some more idiomatic paraphrase thereof.

Abstract: Acceptance Revisited -- Cognitive Decision Theory -- A Critique of Epistemic Utilities -- Induction, Consensus, and Catastrophe -- Elements of Induction -- On Sequential Inference -- Cognitive Decisions under Partial Information -- Local and Global Induction -- Hume and the Problem of Local Induction -- A Conspectus of the Neo-Classical Theory of Induction -- Inquiries, Problems, and Questions: Remarks on Local Induction -- On Piecemeal Knowledge-Formation -- Confirmation, Explanation, and the Paradoxes of Transitivity -- A Selected Bibliography of Local Induction -- Index of Names -- Index of Subjects.

Abstract: The local justification of beliefs and hypotheses has recently become a major concern for epistemologists and philosophers of induction. As such, the problem of local justification is not entirely new. Most pragmatists had addressed themselves to it, and so did, to some extent, many classical inductivists in the Bacon-Whewell-Mill tradition. In the last few decades, however, the use of logic and semantics, probability calculus, statistical methods, and decision-theoretic concepts in the reconstruction of in­ ductive inference has revealed some important technical respects in which inductive justification can be local: the choice of a language, with its syntactic and semantic features, the relativity of probabilistic evalua­ tions to an initial body of evidence or background knowledge and to an agent's utilities and preferences, etc. Some paradoxes and difficulties encountered by purely formal accounts of inductive justification, the erosion of the once dominant empiricist position, which most approaches to induction took for granted, and the increasing challenge of noninduc­ tivist epistemolgies have underscored the need of accounting for the methodological problems of applying inductive logic to real life contexts, particularly in science. As a result, in the late fifties and sixties, several related developments pointed to a new, local approach to inductive justification.

Abstract: Editorial Introduction -- Quine’s Philosophy of Science -- An Introduction to ‘Translation and Meaning’, Chapter Two of Word and Object -- Beginning with Ordinary Things -- Quine’s Empirical Assumptions -- Behavioral Criteria of Radical Translation -- Conventionalism and the Indeterminacy of Translation -- Singular Terms and Predication -- Vacuous Names -- Quine’s Syntactical Insights -- On Saying That -- Quine on Modality -- Some Problems about Belief -- Quantifying In -- Logic with Platonism -- On the Consistency of a Slight (?) Modification of Quine’s New Foundations -- Replies -- Publications of W. V. Quine.

Abstract: It is gratifying to see that philosophers' continued interest in Words and Objections has been so strong as to motivate a paperback edition. This is gratifying because it vindicates the editors' belief in the permanent im­ portance of Quine's philosophy and in the value of the papers com­ menting on it which were collected in our volume. Apart from a couple of small corrections, only one change has been made. The list of Professor Quine's writings has been brought up to date. The editors cannot claim any credit for this improvement, however. We have not tried to imitate the Library of Living Philosophers volumes and to include Professor Quine's autobiography in this volume, but we are fortunate to publish here his brand-new auto bibliography. 1975 THE EDITORS TABLE OF CONTENTS V PREFACE 1 EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION 1. 1. C. SMAR T / Quine's Philosophy of Science 3 GILBERT HARMAN / An Introduction to 'Translation and Meaning', Chapter Two of Word and Object 14 ERIK STENIUS / Beginning with Ordinary Things 27 NOAM CHOMSKY / Quine's Empirical Assumptions 53 1AAKKO HINTIKKA / Behavioral Criteria of Radical Translation 69 BARRY STROUD / Conventionalism and the Indeterminacy of Translation 82 P. F. STRA WSON / Singular Terms and Predication 97 118 H. P. GRICE / Vacuous Names P. T.

Abstract: I / Introduction -- I. The Pre-Euclidean Theory of Incommensurable Magnitudes -- II. General Methodological Observations -- III. Indispensable Definitions -- II / The Side and the Diameter of the Square -- I. The Received Proof of the Incommensurability of the Side and Diameter of the Square -- II. Anthyphairesis and the Side and Diameter -- III. Impact of the Discovery of Incommensurability -- IV. Summary of the Early Studies -- III / Plato’s Account of the Work Of Theodorus -- I. Formulation of the Problem: ????µ??? -- II. The Role of Diagrams: ??????? -- III. The Ideal of Demonstration: ?????????? -- IV. Why Separate Cases? -- V. Why Stop at Seventeen? -- VI. The Theorems of Theaetetus -- VII. Theodoras’ Style of Geometry -- VIII. Summary of Interpretive Criteria -- IV / A Critical Review of Reconstructions of Theodorus’ Proofs -- I. Reconstruction via Approximation Techniques -- II. Algebraic Reconstruction -- III. Anthyphairetic Reconstruction -- V / The Pythagorean Arithmetic of the Fifth Century -- I. Pythagorean Studies of the Odd and the Even -- II. The Pebble-Representation of Numbers -- III. The Pebble-Methods Applied to the Study of the Odd and the Even -- IV. The Theory of Figured Numbers -- V. Properties of Pythagorean Number Triples -- VI / The Early Study of Incommensurable Magnitudes: Theodorus -- I. Numbers Represented as Magnitudes -- II. Right Triangles and the Discovery of Incommensurability -- III. The Lesson of Theodorus -- IV. Theodorus and Elements II -- VII / The Arithmetic of Incommensurability: Theaetetus and Archytas -- I. The Theorem of Archytas on Epimoric Ratios -- II. The Theorems of Theaetetus -- III. The Arithmetic Proofs of the Theorems of Theaetetus -- IV. The Arithmetic Basis of Theaetetus’ Theory -- V. Observations on Pre-Euclidean Arithmetic -- VIII / The geometry of incommensurability: Theaetetus and Eudoxus -- I. The Theorems of Theaetetus: Proofs of the Geometric Part -- II. Anthyphairesis and the Theory of Proportions -- III. The Theory of Proportions in Elements X -- IV. Theaetetus and Eudoxus -- V. Summary of the Development of the Theory of Irrationals -- IX / Conclusions and Syntheses -- I. The Pre-Euclidean Theory of Incommensurable Magnitudes -- II. The Editing of the Elements -- III. The Pre-Euclidean Foundations-Crises -- Appendices -- A. On the Extension of Theodoras’ Method -- B. On the Anthyphairetic Proportion Theory -- A List of the Theorems in Chapters V-VIII and the Appendices -- Referencing Conventions and Bibliography -- I. Referencing Conventions -- II. Abbreviations used in the Notes and the Bibliography -- III. Bibliography of Works Consulted: Ancient Authors -- IV. Modern Works: Books -- V. Modern Works: Articles -- Index of Names -- Index of Passages Cited from Ancient Works.

Abstract: The present work has three principal objectives: (1) to fix the chronology of the development of the pre-Euclidean theory of incommensurable magnitudes beginning from the first discoveries by fifth-century Pythago­ reans, advancing through the achievements of Theodorus of Cyrene, Theaetetus, Archytas and Eudoxus, and culminating in the formal theory of Elements X; (2) to correlate the stages of this developing theory with the evolution of the Elements as a whole; and (3) to establish that the high standards of rigor characteristic of this evolution were intrinsic to the mathematicians' work. In this third point, we wish to counterbalance a prevalent thesis that the impulse toward mathematical rigor was purely a response to the dialecticians' critique of foundations; on the contrary, we shall see that not until Eudoxus does there appear work which may be described as purely foundational in its intent. Through the examination of these problems, the present work will either alter or set in a new light virtually every standard thesis about the fourth-century Greek geometry. I. THE PRE-EUCLIDEAN THEORY OF INCOMMENSURABLE MAGNITUDES The Euclidean theory of incommensurable magnitudes, as preserved in Book X of the Elements, is a synthetic masterwork. Yet there are detect­ able seams in its structure, seams revealed both through terminology and through the historical clues provided by the neo-Platonist commentator Proclus.

Abstract: 1: Introduction: Tasks and Problems -- 1. The Foundations of Normative Systems and Institutions -- 2. Practical Thinking -- 3. Our Six Types of Philosophical Problems -- 4. Practical Language -- 5. Conventions on Quotation Marks -- I The Logico-Ontological Structure of the Representational Image of Practical Thinking -- 2: Practical Thinking: Dramatis Personae -- 3: Propositional Structure and Propositional Implication -- 4: Imperatives and Prescriptions -- 5: Imperative Designated Values: Orthotes and Anarthotes -- 6: Intentions and Intending -- 7: Deontic Judgments and Their Implicational Structure -- 8: Deontic Truth -- 9: A Formal System for the Quantificational Logic with Identity of Propositions, Practitions, and Deontic Judgments -- II The Meta-Psychology of Practical Thinking: The Action Schema -- 10: The Internal Causality of Practical Thinking -- 11: Oughts and the Reasonableness of Action -- III The Metaphysics of Practical Thinking: The Reality of Doing and of Deontic Properties -- 12: Events and the Structure of Doing -- 13: The Autonomy of Practical Thinking and the Non-Natural Character of Practical Noemata -- Index of Names -- Index of Topics.

Abstract: Philosophy is the search for the large patterns of the world and of the large patterns of experience, perceptual, theoretical, . . . , aesthetic, and practical - the patterns that, regardless of specific contents, characterize the main types of experience. In this book I carry out my search for the large patterns of practical experience: the experience of deliberation, of recognition of duties and their conflicts, of attempts to guide other person's conduct, of deciding to act, of influencing the physical world with one's doings, and the like. This is the experience that makes possible our social life, the formulation of plans for teamwork, the building of institutions, the development of nations, and the adoption of the ideal of morality. Here I develop a network of theories about the most fundamental aspects of practical thinking: what is thought in such thinking; what makes that thinking correct; what makes it practical; and the structure of the doings that accrue to the world when such thinking is effective. I have attempted to build each theory in sufficient detail, so that it il­ luminates its subject matter with a certain degree of fullness. But I have also aimed at producing an harmonious system of theories, so that the grand pattern of practical thinking can be admired, not only for the beauty of the separate structures of its parts, but also for its architectonic unity. Chapter 1 gives the details of the many facets of this project and discusses some methodological techniques.

Abstract: 1. A Prologue: On Stability and Flux -- References -- 2. Science in Flux: Footnotes to Popper -- I. Einstein has Upset the View that Science is Stable -- II. The Empirical Support of Some Scientific Theories Requires Explanation -- III. The Desire for Stability Makes Us See More of It than There is -- IV. Popper’s Theory Presents Science as an Endless Series of Debates -- V. Popper Makes Additional Assumptions -- VI. Rationality is a Means to an End -- References -- Appendix: The Role of Corroboration in Popper’s Philosophy -- Notes -- 3. On Novelty -- I. On the Novelty of Ideas in General -- II. Science and Truth -- III. Popper’s View of Science -- Notes -- Appendix: On the Discovery of General Facts -- 4. Replies To Diane: Popper On Learning From Experience81 -- Note -- Appendix: Empiricism Without Inductivism -- 5. Sensationalism -- 1. Sensationalism vs. Theoretical Knowledge -- 2. Sensationalism vs. Empiricism -- 3. Sense-Experience vs. Experience -- 4. Sensationalism vs. Common Sense -- 5. Explanation vs. Consent -- 6. The Roots of Scientific Realism -- 7. Conclusion -- 6. When Should we Ignore Evidence in Favour of a Hypothesis? -- I. Can Observation Reports be Revoked? -- II. Can Refutation be Final? -- III. A Simple Issue Obfuscated -- IV. A Criterion for Rejection of Observation Reports? -- V. Does Popper Offer a Rule of Rejection? -- VI.Do We Need a Rate of Acceptance of Observation Reports? -- Appendix: Random Versus Unsystematic Observations -- 7. Testing as a Bootstrap Operation in Physics -- First Introduction: Reliability is not a Matter for Pure Science -- Second Introduction: The Duhem-Quine Thesis has a New Significance -- I. Conventionalists and the Problem of Induction -- II. Popper is Ambivalent Regarding Goodman’s Problem -- III. Bootstrap Operations in Testing -- IV. The Need for Constraints is Quite Real -- V. Science Constraints Itself by Auxiliary Hypotheses -- VI. Revolutions Occur when Bootstrap Operations Fail -- VII. Conclusion -- Appendix: Precision in Theory and in Measurement -- 8. Towards A Theory Of ‘Ad Hoc’ Hypotheses -- I. Ad hoc Hypotheses which become Factual Evidence -- II. The Conventional Element in Science -- III. Reducing the Conventions -- IV. Metaphysics and ad hoc Hypotheses -- V. What is a Mess? -- Appendix: The Traditional ad hoc Use of Instrumentalism -- 9. The Nature of Scientific Problems and their Roots in Metaphysics -- I. Scientific Research Centers Around a Few Problems -- II. The Anti-Metaphysical Tradition is Outdated -- III. A Historical Note on Science and Metaphysics -- IV. Pseudo-Science is not the Same as Non-Science -- V. Popper’s Theory of Science -- VI. Superstition, Pseudo-Science, and Metaphysics Use Instances in Different Ways -- VII. Metaphysical Doctrines are Often Insufficient Frame-works for Science -- VIII. The Role of Interpretations in Physics -- IX. The History of Science as the History of Its Metaphysical Frameworks -- Appendix: What is a Natural Law? -- 10. Questions of Science and Metaphysics -- I. How Do we Select Questions? -- II. We Select Questions Within Given Metaphysical Frame-works -- III.The Literature on Questions -- IV.The Literature on the Logic of Questions -- V.The Instrumentalist View on the Choice of Questions -- VI. Collingwood’s Peculiarity -- VII. The Logic of Multiple-Choice-Questions -- VIII. Bromberger on Why-Questions -- IX. The Need for a Metaphysical Theory of Causality -- X.Collingwood in a New Garb -- Appendix: The Anti-Scientific Metaphysician -- Notes -- 11. The Confusion Between Physics And Metaphysics in the Standard Histories of Sciences -- Appendix: Reply to Commentators -- 12.The Confusion Between Science and Technology in the Standard Philosophies of Science -- Appendix: Planning for Success: A Reply to Professor Wisdom -- Notes -- 13. Positive Evidence in Science and Technology -- I. Kant’s Scandal -- II. Whitehead’s Scandal -- III.The Facts About Induction -- IV.Success and Rationality -- V. The Sociology of Knowledge -- Appendix: Duhem’s Instrumentalism and Autonomism -- 14. Positive Evidence as a Social Institution -- Appendix: The Logic of Technological Development -- 15. Imperfect Knowledge -- I. Equating Imperfect Knowledge with Science is Questionable -- II. Equating Imperfect Knowledge with Rational Belief is an Error -- III. Imperfect Knowledge-Claims are Qualified by Publicly Accepted Hypotheses -- Notes -- 16. Criteria for Plausible Arguments -- Note -- Appendix: The Standard Misinterpretation of Skepticism -- 17. Modified Conventionalism -- I. The Problem -- II. Science and Society -- III. Popper’s Problems of Demarcation -- IV. The Three Views Concerning Human Knowledge Revisited -- Appendix: Bartley’s Critique of Popper -- Notes -- 18. Unity and Diversity in Science -- Abstract -- I. Ambivalence Towards Unity: An Impression -- II. The Ethics of Science as a Unifier of Science -- III. Proof as the Unifier of Science -- IV. Manifest Truth as the Unifier of Science -- V. Unity of Science as a Dictator of Unanimity on All Questions -- VI. A Theory of Rational Disagreement -- References -- Appendix on Kant -- 19. Can Religion go Beyond Reason? -- I. Religion and Reason -- II. Dissatisfaction with Science and Religion -- III. Reason and Faith -- IV. The Question of Complementary Relationship -- V. Toward Intellectual Complementation -- VI. Possibilities of Cooperation -- VII. Defects of Both Rationalism and Religion -- VIII. Standards of Rational Thought and Action -- IX. Enlightenment and Self-Reliance -- X. The Sophisticated Religionists: Buber and Polangi -- XI. Science and Universalistic Religion -- Notes -- Appendix on Buber -- 20. Assurance and Agnosticism -- I. The Compleat Agnostic -- II. The Image of Inductive Science -- III. Empirical Facts About Assurance -- IV. The Non-Justificationist Mood -- V. Conversion to Autonomism -- VI. The Assured Agnostic -- Index of Works Cited -- Index of Names -- Index of Subjects.

Abstract: I/Approaches to Teleology, Intentionality, and Historical Understanding -- Causal and Historical Explanation -- Against Reductionism and Purism : Tertium Datur -- Is Transcendental Hermeneutics Possible? -- The Intentions of Intentionality -- Comments on Professor Hintikka’s Paper -- Reply to J. N. Findlay -- II/Causality and Intervention -- Causality and Action -- Causality and History -- An Analysis of Causality -- Explanation and Understanding of Human Behavior -- III/Human Action and its Explanation -- Human Abilities and Dynamic Modalities -- On Deciding -- Intention and Practical Inference -- The Causal Theory of Action -- Explanation and Understanding in History -- Inductive Explanation, Propensity, and Action -- IV/Replies to Commentators. Second thoughts on Explanation and Understanding -- Replies -- Determinism and the Study of Man -- Index of Names.

Abstract: Section I / Value and Explanation: Historical Roots -- Some Basic Explanations of Disease: An Historian’s Viewpoint -- Diseases Versus Healths: Some Legacies in the Philosophies of Modern Medical Science -- Section II / Philosophy of Science in Transition to a Philosophy of Medicine -- Concepts of Function and Mechanism in Medicine and Medical Science (Hommage à Claude Bernard) -- Organs, Organisms and Disease: Human Ontology and Medical Practice -- Comments on “Concepts of Function and Mechanism in Medicine and Medical Science” and “Organs, Organisms and Disease” -- Section III / Ethics and Medicine -- How Virtues Become Vices: Values, Medicine and Social Context -- Moral Philosophy and Medical Perplexity: Comments on “How Virtues Become Vices” -- Section IV / Concepts in Medical Theory -- The Concepts of Health and Disease -- On Disease: Theories of Disease and the Ascription of Disease: Comments on “The Concepts of Health and Disease” -- Section V / Body and Self: Phenomenological Perspectives -- Context and Reflexivity: The Genealogy of Self -- Comments on “Context and Reflexivity” -- The Lived-Body as Catalytic Agent: Reaction at the Interface of Medicine and Philosophy -- Comments on “The Lived-Body as Catalytic Agent” -- Section VI / The Role of Philosophy in the Biomedical Sciences: Contribution or Intrusion? -- Round-Table Discussion -- Notes on Contributors.

Abstract: This volume inaugurates a series concerning philosophy and medicine. There are few, if any, areas of social concern so pervasive as medicine and yet as underexamined by philosophy. But the claim to precedence of the Proceedings of the First Trans-Disciplinary Symposium on Philos­ ophy and Medicine must be qualified. Claims to be "first" are notorious in the history of scientific as well as humanistic investigation and the claim that the First Trans-Disciplinary Symposium on Philosophy and Medicine has no precedent is not meant to be put in bald form. The editors clearly do not maintain that philosophers and physicians have not heretofore discussed matters of mutual concern, nor that individual philosophers and physicians have never taken up problems and concepts in medicine which are themselves at the boundary or interface of these two disciplines - concepts like "matter," "disease," "psyche. " Surely there have been books published on the logic and philosophy of medi­ 1 cine. But the formalization of issues and concepts in medicine has not received, at least in this century, sustained interest by professional phi­ losophers. Groups of philosophers have not engaged medicine in order to explicate its philosophical presuppositions and to sort out the various concepts which appear in medicine. The scope of such an effort takes the philosopher beyond problems and issues which today are subsumed under the rubric "medical ethics.

Abstract: I. Introduction -- II. Defining Return Migration -- III. The “Laws” of Return Migration -- IV. Types of Return Migration -- V. Success or Failure: The Motives for Return Migration -- VI. Readjustment Problems of Returned Migrants -- VII. Some Influences of Returnees on Their Home Country -- VIII. Techniques in Return Migration Research -- IX The Direction of Future Research in Return Migration.

Abstract: Section One Dialogue with Analysis -- The Copula Supplement -- Thought, Language and Philosophy -- Grammar and Metaphysics -- Beyond the Doubt of a Shadow, with an addendum by Samuel Todes, Shadows in Knowledge: Plato’s Misunderstanding of Shadows, and of Knowledge as Shadow-free -- Section Two Transcendental Themes -- Meinong the Phenomenologist -- The “Critique of Pure Reason” as Transcendental Phenomenology -- History, Phenomenology and Reflection -- Reflection on Planned Operations -- Section Three Existential Themes -- Some Perplexities in Nietzsche -- Desire, Need, and Alienation in Sartre -- The Look, the Body, and the Other -- The Significance of Merleau-Ponty’s Philosophy of Language -- Notes on Contributors.

Abstract: Phenomenology in the United States is in a state of ferment and change. Not all the changes are happy ones, however, for some of the most prominent philosophers of the first generation of phenomenologists have died: in 1959 Alfred Schutz, and within the past two years John \Vild, Dorion Cairns, and Aron Gur­ witsch. These thinkers, though often confronting a hostile intel­ lectual climate, were nevertheless persistent and profoundly influential-through their own works, and through their students. The two sources associated with their names, The Graduate Faculty of The New School for Social Research, and the circle around John Wild first at Harvard and later at Northwestern and Yale, produced a sizable portion of the now second gener­ ation American phenomenological philosophers. In a way, it was the very hostility of the American philo­ sophical milieu which became an important factor in the ferment now taking place. Although the older, first generation phenome­ nologists were deeply conversant with other philosophical move­ ments here and abroad, their efforts at meaningful dialogue were largely ignored. Determined not to remain isolated from the dominant currents of Anglo-American philosophy in par­ ticular, the second generation opened the way to a dialogue with analytic philosophers, especially through the efforts of the Society for Phenomenology and Existential Philosophy, led by 2 INTRODUCTION such men as James M. Edie and Hubert Dreyfus and, in other respects, Herbert Spiegelberg and Maurice Natanson.

Abstract: I. Introduction -- II. Causality and Necessity -- III. Human Agency -- IV. Sensing and Objective Reference -- V. Substance and the Mind-Body Relation -- VI. Propositions, Truth and Signs -- VII. Ethics and Education -- VIII. Aesthetics -- IX. Ethics of Belief -- X. Philosophy of Religion -- XI. Paranormal Phenomena -- XII. Meta-philosophy -- Bibliography of the Writings of C. J. Ducasse -- Index of Names -- Index of Subjects.

Abstract: Although a succession of fashions swept the American philosophical scene, C. J. Ducasse was throughout his long career an effective practitioner of analytic philosophy in the classic tradition. As he explained in 1924 "[i]t is only with truths about such questions as the meaning of the term 'true', or 'real', or 'good', and the like . . . that philosophy is concerned. " Such truths are to be discovered inductively by comparing and analyzing concrete cases of the admittedly proper u/le . . . The pressing problems of philosophy are thus in my view primarily problems of def'mition, and moreover, problems of framing def'mitions which must be in formal terms, under penalty of not being otherwise understandable by or acceptable to one or another philosophical school, since the formal elements of thought and tp. ey only are common to all schools. These def'mitions, of course are not to be arbitrary; their relation to the facts of admittedly meaningful linguistic usage is the same as exists between any scientific hypothesis and the facts which it attempts to 1 construe.

Abstract: I: Sexuality and the Fall of Man -- 1. Gnostic Cosmogony -- 2. Christian Gnostics and the Book of Genesis -- 3. Augustinian Orthodoxy and the Original Sin -- II: Virginity and the Monastic Economy of Perfection -- 1. Vita angelica -- 2. Simplicitas -- 3. Contemplation and Prophecy -- 4. Milites Christi -- III: Sponsa Christi: Virginity and Epithalamian Mystery -- 1. The Song of Songs and Christian Exegesis -- 2. Encratism and Marriage -- 3. Epithalamian Gnosis -- IV: Virginity Sexualized -- 1. The Twelfth-Century Context: Ideas and Influences -- 2. Victorine Spiritual Marriage -- 3. St. Bernard and the Song of Songs -- 4. The Katherine Group and Erotic Spirituality -- V: Surviving Elements of Christian Gnosis -- 1. Sin as Sexual -- 2. Traditional Features of Virginity Deontologized -- 3. Virginity and Moral Conflict -- Afterword -- Appendix: The Virgin Mary: Virgin Birth and Immaculate Conception.

Abstract: Apreface is best written last, after a book is done and its author may look back to survey what he hopes he has accomplished and what he must admit he has not. In hindsight virginity by itself has seemed a very large field to till, but with that reflection also comes a sense of misgiving, the awareness that a really comprehensive treatment of that subject would somehow have to encompass an enormous ter­ rain, the whole length and breadth of Christianity's attitude toward sexuality from the earliest times down to the high Middle Ages. It could be argued that no small book could cover so much ground, and I would be the first to agree. As its subtitle is meant to suggest, the present work is, in at least two senses of the word, an essay: both an initial and tentative effort to get at the meaning of an extremely important but as yet unprobed medieval belief in the perfective value of the virginal life; and an interpretive study of a complex subject from a limited point of view, specifically, that in which the virgin appears in devotional literature as the bride of Christ.

Abstract: I Introduction -- II Intuition and Intelligence -- III Probability Learning -- IV Probability Learning in Children -- V The Intuition of Relative Frequency -- VI Estimating Odds and The Concept of Probability -- VII Combinatorial Analysis -- VIII Summary and Conclusions -- Index of Names.

Abstract: About a year ago I promised my friend Fischbein a preface to his book of which I knew the French manuscript. Now with the printer's proofs under my eyes I like the book even better than I did then, because of, and influenced by, new experiences in the meantime, and fresh thoughts that crossed my mind. Have I been influenced by what I remembered from the manuscript? If so, it must have happened unconsciously. But of course, what struck me in this work a year ago, struck a responsive chord in my own mind. In the past, mathematics teaching theory has strongly been influenced by a view on mathematics as a heap of concepts, and on learning mathematics as concepts attainment. Mathematics teaching practice has been jeopardised by this theoretical approach, which in its most dangerous form expresses itself as a radical atomism. To concepts attainment Fischbein opposes acquisition of intuitions. In my own publications I avoided the word "intuition" because of the variety of its meanings across languages. For some time I have used the term "constitution of mathematical objects", which I think means the same as Fischbein's "acquisition of intuitions" - indeed as I view it, constituting a mental object precedes its conceptualising, and under this viewpoint I tried to observe mathematical activities of young children.

Abstract: I Historical Perspectives -- Compossibility and Incompossibility in Leibniz -- Hume and the Discipline of Phenomenology: An Historical Perspective -- Royce and the Reductions -- Wittgenstein’s “Phenomenological Reduction” -- The Occasion and Novelty of Husserl’s Phenomenology of Essence -- Martin Heidegger as a Phenomenologist -- II Systematic Perspectives -- Marriage, Parenthood and Life in Community: A Phenomenological View -- The Monads Have Windows -- Das Noema als reelles Moment -- Eine Tragödie: Wallensteins und unser aller böser Geist -- “Alms for Oblivion”: An Essay on Objective Time and Experienced Time -- Truth Within Phenomenological Speech -- The Phenomenology of Speaking -- Sym-philosophizing in an Ethics Class -- Phenomenological Aspects of Probability -- III Bibliographical Perspectives -- Apologia pro Bibliographia Mea -- Herbert Spiegelberg, Bibliography of Published Works 1930–1974.

Abstract: Professor H. L. Van Breda had hoped to write this preface, but his recent, unexpected and untimely death has left that task in my hands. Although my remarks will not be as eloquent and insightful as his surely would have been, some few words are clearly in order here; for the phenomenological community has not only lost the leadership of Fr. Van Breda these last years, but also the scholarship and leadership of Aron Gurwitsch and Alden Fisher - both contributors to this volume - as well as that of Dorion Cairns and John Wild. Our leaders are fewer now but Herbert Spiegelberg is still very obviously one of them. This volume thus presents the work of some of the past and presently recognized leaders in phenomenology - e. g. Gurwitsch, Straus, and Fisher - but, more important perhaps, it also presents the work of some of those who are sure to be future leaders of our community of phenomenological philosophers, if in fact they have not already achieved this status. Most, if not all, of the contribu­ tors to this volume are in some way or another indebted to Herbert Spiegelberg and his work in phenomenology.

Abstract: I: Husserl’s Position -- 1. The original realist standpoint -- 2. The concept of philosophy as rigorous science -- 3. Postulates determining the appropriate method of epistemology -- 4. The results of the investigations into outer perception and the constitutive analysis of objects of the real world -- 5. The formal-ontological foundations of the idealist solution -- II: Critical Remarks -- 1. Must the concept of philosophy as rigorous science lead to transcendental idealism ? -- 2. The limits of the applicability of the phenomenological reduction -- 3. Critical remarks on particular results of the analysis of outer perception and the theory of constitution -- 4. Critical remarks on the formal-ontological sources of the Husserlian idealism.

Abstract: Roman Ingarden studied under Husserl before and during the first world war. He belonged to the so-called Gottingen group of Husserl's pupils. Husserl's doctrine was accepted by them and interpreted in a realist vein. Ingarden defended this view all his life. He opposed the development of phenomenology towards idealism. A considerable part of Ingarden's great creative effort is dedicated to the construction of a realist phenomenology and thus, according to him, to continuing the erection of the theoret­ ical structure whose foundations were laid by Husserl in his Logical Investigations. From Ingarden's standpoint the question of idealism versus realism was a crucial one. Ingarden published several studies on Husserl. The first one was written in 1918 and the last one was published posthumously. The present essay was printed in Ingarden's book Z badan nad filozofi:t­ wsp61czesn:t- (Inquiries into Contemporary Philosophy 1963) along with a number of other essays on Husserl and his philoso­ phy. This one is representative for Ingarden's positions. It is a good example of his contribution to an important controversy in the history of phenomenology, and it gives the reader an idea of Ingarden's critique of Husserlian idealism against the background of his argument for realism. Thanks and acknowledgements are due to Mr. J. E. Llewelyn of Edinburgh University. This translation was undertaken in collaboration with him. Arn6r Hannibalsson K6pavogur, Iceland 2I. II.

Abstract: Preface -- One -- to Part One -- Music Examples -- Notes to the Melodies -- Two -- to Part Two -- Texts and Translations -- Refrains -- Notes to the Texts -- Appendix I, by Zoltán Kodály -- The Rumanian Folk Music of Maramures -- Appendix II, by Benjamin Suchoff -- Addenda -- Appendix III, by Benjamin Suchoff -- Lexicographical Index of Vocal Melodies -- Map of Transylvania, by Tiberiu Alexandra.

Abstract: 1 Subject Matter -- 2 Relevance -- 3 The Fate of Hegel Interpretations -- 4 Divisions -- I / Dialectic -- 1 / Dialectic of the Real -- 2 / Positive Dialectic -- 3 / The Subject Matter of Dialectical Philosophy -- II / Dialectic And Metaphysics -- 1 / ‘Metaphysics’ — A Philosophical Discipline -- 2 / Metaphysical Method in General -- 3 / Spinoza and Double Negation -- III / Dialectical Metaphysics -- 1 / Infinity -- 2 / Absolute Necessity -- 3 / Being is Thought -- Summary -- Epilogue / Hegel’s Dialectic and Contemporary Issues -- 1 Analytic and Dialectic -- 2 The Sublation of Hegel’s Dialectic -- 2.1 First Reversion -- 2.2 Second Reversion -- 2.3 Third Reversion -- 2.4 Fourth Reversion -- Concerning Notes And Abbreviations -- Notes -- Index of Names.

Abstract: This book was written in 1968, and defended as a doctoral dissertation before the Philosophical Faculty at the University of Fribourg (Switzerland) in 1969. It treats of the systematic views of Hegel which led him to give to the princi­ ple of non-contradiction, the principle of double negation, and the principle of excluded middle, meanings which are difficult to understand. The reader will look in vain for the philosophical position of the author. A few words about the intentions which motivated the author to study and clarify Hegel's thought are therefore not out of place. In the early sixties, when occupying myself with the history of Marxist philosophy, I discovered that the representatives of the logical-positivist tra­ dition were not alone in employing a principle of demarcation; that those of the dialectical Marxist tradition were also using such a principle ('self-move­ ment') as a foundation of a scientific philosophy and as a means to delimit unscientific ideas. I aimed at a clear conception of this principle in order to be able to judge whether, and to what extent, it accords with the foundations of the analytical method. In this endeavor I encountered two problems: (1) What is to be understood by 'analytical method' cannot be ascertained un­ equivocally.

Abstract: I. The Idea of Philosophy -- I. The Concept of “Something” and of the “Absolute Being” -- II. Solovyev’s “Absolute Being” and Scheler’s “The Eternally Astonishing Roofing of the Abyss of Absolute Nothing” -- III. Summary -- II. Solovyev’s Idea of “Integral Knowledge” and Scheler’s “System of Conformity” -- I. The Meta-Anthropological Aspect -- II. The Historical Aspect -- III. The Epistemological Aspect -- III. The Relation Between Religion and Metaphysics -- I. Typology -- II. The Problems -- IV. Systematic Philosophy -- I. “Organic Logic” -- II. “Organic Metaphysics” -- III. “Organic Ethics” -- IV. The Philosophy of Eros -- V. Special Problems -- I. The Feminist Issue and the Idea of God -- II. On the Question of Influence -- VI. Retrospect -- VII. Russian Philosophy from Solovyev to Shestov — Revision of a Soviet Taboo -- I. The Argument over Russian Philosophy -- II. From Theosophy to Phenomenology -- III. The New Religious Philosophy -- VIII. Soviet Judgement and Criticism of Solovyev -- I. The Great Soviet Encyclopaedia, 1 st edition 1947 -- II. The Great Soviet Encyclopaedia, 2nd edition 1957 -- III. Against Contemporary Falsifiers of the History of Russian Philosophy, 1960 -- IV. History of Russian Philosophy, 1961 -- IX. Soviet Appropriation of Scheler’s Phenomenology -- Notes -- Bibliography — A Summary of the Works by and on Vladimir Solovyev and Max Scheler -- Index of Names.

Abstract: This comparative study of the works of Vladimir Solovyev and Max Scheler explores some of the areas in which their thoughts seem to bear a direct relation to one another. The author shows, however, that such a correlation is not based on any factual influence of the earlier Russian on the later philosophy of Scheler. The similarities in their spiritual and philosophical development are significant as the author demonstrates in his chapter on systematic philosophy. This comparison is not just of historical interest. It is meant to contri­ bute to a better understanding between the East and the West. The author provides a basis for future discussions by establishing a common area of inquiry and by demonstrating a convergence of viewpoints already in regard to these problems. The author also discusses the potential role of the ideas of Solovyev and Scheler in the formation of a consciousness which he sees now emerging in the Soviet Union - a consciousness critical of any misrepresentation both of non-Marxist Russian philosophy as well as of Western philosophy in general. In regard to the translation itself, three things should be mentioned. First of all, the distinction between the important German words "Sein" and "Seiendes" is often difficult to preserve in translation. Unless otherwise noted all references to "being" refer to "Seiendes." Second, the abbreviations of the works of Solovyev and Scheler used in the footnotes are clarified in the summary of the works of these authors found on page 31Off. below.

Abstract: Physical Theory and Experiment -- Two Dogmas of Empiricism -- Empiricist Criteria of Cognitive Significance: Problems and Changes -- Some Fundamental Problems in the Logic of Scientific Discovery -- Background Knowledge and Scientific Growth -- The Duhemian Argument -- A Comment on Grünbaum’s Claim -- Scientific Revolutions as Changes of World View -- Grünbaum on ‘The Duhemian Argument’ -- Quine, Grünbaum, and the Duhemian Thesis -- Duhem, Quine and Grünbaum on Falsification -- Duhem, Quine and a New Empiricism -- Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes -- Is it never Possible to Falsify a Hypothesis Irrevocably? -- The Rationality of Science (From‘Against Method’) -- Index of Names.

Abstract: According to a view assumed by many scientists and philosophers of science and standardly found in science textbooks, it is controlled ex­ perience which provides the basis for distinguishing between acceptable and unacceptable theories in science: acceptable theories are those which can pass empirical tests. It has often been thought that a certain sort of test is particularly significant: 'crucial experiments' provide supporting empiri­ cal evidence for one theory while providing conclusive evidence against another. However, in 1906 Pierre Duhem argued that the falsification of a theory is necessarily ambiguous and therefore that there are no crucial experiments; one can never be sure that it is a given theory rather than auxiliary or background hypotheses which experiment has falsified. w. V. Quine has concurred in this judgment, arguing that "our statements about the external world face the tribunal of sense experience not indi­ vidually but only as a corporate body". Some philosophers have thought that the Duhem-Quine thesis gra­ tuitously raises perplexities. Others see it as doubly significant; these philosophers think that it provides a base for criticism of the foundational view of knowledge which has dominated much of western thought since Descartes, and they think that it opens the door to a new and fruitful way to conceive of scientific progress in particular and of the nature and growth of knowledge in general.

Abstract: 1. Approaches to the Practice and Planning of Social and Educational Change -- A Critical Analysis of Approaches to Futures-Thinking -- Towards a Constructive Approach to the Future -- Conclusion -- 2. Trends and Problems in Social and Educational Equality -- Problems in the International system -- Class and Equality in European Society -- Problems of Educational and Social Equality -- 3. Alternative Social Futures and Social Dynamics -- A Framework for Social Futures -- Hierarchical Alternatives -- Egalitarian Alternatives -- Conclusion -- 4. Towards Alternative Futures for Education —Educational Structures and Processes -- 1 : Education in the Hierarchical Alternatives -- 2: Education in the Egalitarian Alternatives -- 5. Social Power and Strategies for Changing Education -- The Search for Strategies -- The Social and Political Content of Strategies for Change -- Towards More Effective Innovation in Education -- Biographical Notes.

Abstract: This volume has been prepared in the framework of Project 1: "Educating Man for the 21st Century" of Plan Europe 2000, sponsored by the European Cultural Foundation. While most of the studies launched under this Project deal with specific aspects or levels of education the present volume attempts to provide a more global view of educational futures and their relationships to alternative futures of the overall socio-economic system. It should not be considered as a general integration or synthesis· of the different studies of the Education Project of the European Cultural Foundation - although it draws on them as well as other recently published documents. Rather, it should be regarded as one of several possible approaches, analytical tools, and incentives to the study and open discussion of educational problems seen in a long-term perspective. The volume is the result of a collective effort of a multinational team of researchers. A colloquium of some sixty participants, meeting at the Uni­ versity of York in October 1972, provided critiques and comments to the first version of the report. But only the authors themselves claim responsibil­ ity for the methodology of the study, and the opinions and conclusions expressed therein. These do not necessarily reflect those of the sponsors of the volume, the European Cultural Foundation and the Scientific Committee of its Education Project. • Such a synthesis will appear as the concluding report of the Project.

Abstract: 1 Vacuum Tubes -- 2 Electron Optics -- 3 Microwave Tubes -- 4 Electrons and Holes in Solids -- 5 Semiconductor Devices -- 6 Semiconductor Technology and Microelectronics -- 7 Masers and Lasers -- 8 Super Conducting Devices -- 9 Electron Microscopes -- 10 Plasmas -- 11 Particle Accelerators.

Abstract: I: Introduction -- 1. The Object of this Study -- 2. The Significance of this Study -- 3. Some Difficulties -- 4. On Method -- 5. The Questions -- II: First Historical Approach: Positivism and Neopositivism -- 1. The Notion of Positivism -- 2. The History of Early Positivism (pre-1921) -- 3. The History of Neopositivism (post-1921) -- III: Second Historical Approach: Notions of Philosophy and Relationships to Positivism in Marx, Engels and the Earlier Soviet Philosophers (up to World War II) -- l.Marx -- 2. Engels -- 3. Lenin -- 4. From Lenin to Stalinism -- IV: The Soviet Critique of Neopositivism -- 1. Systematic Background -- 2. Historical Background -- 3. Igor Sergeevi? Narskij -- 4. Vladimir Sergeevi? Švyrev -- 5. Pavel Vasil’evi? Kopnin -- 6. Various other Soviet Authors -- 7. Outcome -- V: Concluding Remarks -- References -- Index of Names -- Index of Subjects.

Abstract: The nrst of the people to be thanked for their help during the composition of this work is Professor I.M. Bochenski, under whom I had the good fortune to study for an extended period of time. Without his help, it is doubtful that this work would have been writt"l1 at all. Among the other professors who helped along the way, I would like to cite in particular Professors A.F. Utz, M.D. Philippe and N. Luyten of the University of Fribourg. Many friends were present at the birth of the ideas contained in this book. By naming K.G. Ballestrem, T.l. Blakeley and M.F. Gagern, I do not want to slight any of the rest. It was A. Spiekermann in Hollinghofen who saw to it that other preoccupations did not rob me of all the time needed for the study of the subject-matter and to the composition of this treatise. Of particular help in getting sources from the libraries of the world were Miss Lifschitz of the Institute of East-European Studies and Mr. Uldry of the Cantonal Library in Fribourg, Switzerland. Finally, my patient typist, Mrs. Frey in Munster, deserves special mention for her beautiful work.

Abstract: Section I. Multi-Attribute Utility -- Editors’ Introduction -- Experimental Applications of Multi-Attribute Utility Models -- Multi-Attribute Utility Theory: Models and Assessment Procedures -- How We Can Use the Notion of Semi-Orders to Build Outranking Relations in Multi-Criteria Decision Making -- Multi-Criteria Decision Making: Comments on Jacquet-Lagrèze’s Paper -- An Investigation of Subjective Preference Orderings for Multi-Attributed Alternatives -- Section II. Subjective Probability -- Editors’ Introduction -- Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases -- A Structural Theory of Uncertain Knowledge -- Subjective Probability Forecasting: Some Real World Experiments -- A Three-Step Procedure for Assigning Probabilities to Rare Events -- Section III. Probability in Courtroom Decision Making -- Editors’ Introduction -- Probabilities and the Law -- Probabilistic Analysis of Identification Evidence -- Juror Decisions and the Determination of Guilt in Capital Punishment Cases: A Bayesian Perspective -- Section IV. Some Alternative Views on Decision Behavior -- Editors’ Introduction -- Utility, Welfare, and Probability: An Unorthodox Economist’s View -- Search Behavior in Non-Simultaneous Choice Situations: Satisficing or Maximizing? -- Decision Time as a Function of Task Complexity -- Decision Time and Task Complexity: Comments on Hogarth’s Paper -- Section V. Dynamic Decision Making -- Editors’ Introduction -- Research Paradigms for Studying Dynamic Decision Behavior -- Dynamic Decision Behavior: Comments on Rapoport’s Paper -- Section VI. Problems of Collective Decision Making -- Editors’ Introduction -- Some Observations on Theories of Collective Decisions -- The Use of Decision Analysis in the Public Sector -- Index of Names -- Index of Subjects.

Abstract: Human decision making involves problems which are being studied with increasing interest and sophistication. They range from controversial political decisions via individual consumer decisions to such simple tasks as signal discriminations. Although it would seem that decisions have to do with choices among available actions of any kind, there is general agreement that decision making research should pertain to choice prob­ lems which cannot be solved without a predecisional stage of finding choice alternatives, weighing evidence, and judging values. The ultimate objective of scientific research on decision making is two-fold: (a) to develop a theoretically sound technology for the optimal solution of decision problems, and (b) to formulate a descriptive theory of human decision making. The latter may, in tum, protect decision makers from being caught in the traps of their own limitations and biases. Recently, in decision making research the strong emphasis on well­ defined laboratory tasks is decreasing in favour of more realistic studies in various practical settings. This may well have been caused by a growing awareness of the fact that decision-behaviour is strongly determined by situational factors, which makes it necessary to look into processes of interaction between the decision maker and the relevant task environ­ ment. Almost inevitably there is a parallel shift of interest towards problems of utility measurement and the evaluation of consequences.

Abstract: I. Preference Orderings and Utility Theory -- 1. Relational Systems -- 2. Preference Relations -- 3. Some Remarks on Utility Theory -- 4. Linear Inequalities -- II. Ordinal Utility -- 1. Some Classical Representation Theorems -- 2. Lexicographic Utility -- 3. Utility Theories with Respect to n?-Sets -- 4. Ultraproducts and Ultrapowers -- 5. Approximating an r*-Valued Utility Function by a Real Valued Function -- 6. Non-Standard Utility Functions Always Exist -- 7. Utility Functions for Partial Orderings -- III. On Numerical Relational Systems -- 1. First-Order Languages -- 2. Some Preliminary Considerations -- 3. Universal and Homogeneous Relational Systems -- 4. Saturated Relational Systems -- IV. Utility Theories for More Structured Empirical Data -- 1. Some Remarks -- 2. The Empirical Status of Axioms -- 3. Utility Theories which are Axiomatizable in an Ordinary First Order Language -- 4. Extensive Utility -- 5. Conjoint Measurement of Utilities -- 6. On Certain Mean Systems -- V. On Utility Spaces, The Theory of Games and the Realization of Comparative Probability Relations -- 1. A Generalization of the Von Neumann/Morgenstern Utility Theory -- 2. Non-Standard Utilities in Game Theory -- 3. Some Aspects of the Realization of Comparative Probability Relations -- Appendix I. Ordinal and Cardinal Numbers -- Appendix II. Some Basic Facts about Filters and Ultrafilters -- Index of Names -- Index of Subjects.

Abstract: My interest in non-Archimedean utility theory and the problems related to it was aroused by discussions which I have had with Professors Werner Leinfellner and Günter Menges. On the occasion of the Second Inter­ national Game Theory Workshop, Berkeley, 1970, which was sponsored by the National Science Foundation, I had the opportunity to report about a result on non-standard utilities. Work on this subject continued when I was a research assistant of Professor Günter Menges at the Uni­ versity of Heidelberg. The present mono graph is essentially a translation of my habilitation thesis which was accepted on February 15, 1973 by the Faculty of Economics and Social Sciences at the Universtity of Heidelberg. On translating my thesis I took up some suggestions made by ProfessorWerner Böge from the Faculty of Mathematics at the Uni­ versity of Heidelberg. Through lack of time many of his ideas have not been taken into consideration but I hope to do so in a future paper. The first chapter should be considered as a short introduction to pref­ erence orderings and to the notion of a utility theory proposed by Dana Scott and Patrick Suppes. In the second chapter I discuss in some detail various problems of ordinal utility theory. Except when introducing non-standard models of the reals no use is made of concepts of model theory. This is done in deference to those readers who do not wish to be troubled by formal languages and model theory.

Abstract: I. Introduction -- II. The General Conditions of Knowledge: Truth and Confience -- III. The General Conditions of Knowledge: Justification -- IV. The General Conditions of Knowledge: External Conclusiveness -- V. Perceptual Facts -- VI. Perceptual Knowledge -- VII. Memory Knowledge -- VIII. When and Why to Trust One’s Senses and Memory -- Index of Names -- Index of Subjects.

Abstract: In this book I present what seem to me (at the moment) to be right an­ swers to some of the main philosophical questions about the topics men­ tioned in the title, and I argue for them where I can. I hope that what I say may be of interest both to those who have already studied these ques­ tions a lot and to those who haven't. There are several important topics in epistemology to which I give little or no attention here - such as the nature of a proposition, the major classifications of propositions (neces­ sary and contingent, a priori and a posteriori, analytic and synthetic, general and particular), the nature of understanding a proposition, the nature of truth, the nature and justification of the various kinds of in­ ference (deductive, inductive, and probably others) -but enough is cover­ ed, to one degree or another, that the book might be of use in a course in epistemology. Earlier versions of some of the material in Chapters II, III, and IV were some of the material in Ginet (1970). An earlier version of the part of Chapter VII on memory-connection was a paper that I profited from reading and discussing in philosophy discussion groups at Cornell Uni­ versity, SUNY at Albany, and Syracuse University in 1972-73. I do not like to admit how long I have been working on this book.

Abstract: On Some of Mandeville’s Minor Writings -- Bernard Mandeville’s The Virgin Unmask’d -- Mandeville and Europe: Medicine and Philosophy -- “The Great Leviathan of Lechery”: Mandeville’s Modest Defence of Public Stews (1724) -- Religion and Ethics -- Religion and Ethics in Mandeville -- Faith, Sincerity and Morality: Mandeville and Bayle -- Politics and Society -- Mandeville and the Eutopia Seated in the Brain -- The Politics of Bernard Mandeville -- Mandeville in Relation to Some other Writers -- Mandeville and Wither: Individualism and the Workings of Providence -- Mandeville and Defoe -- Mandeville and Shaftesbury: Some Facts and Problems -- Mandeville and Voltaire -- Style, Satire and Paradox -- “What pierces or strikes”: Prose Style in The Fable of the Bees -- The Cant of Social Compromise: Some Observations on Mandeville’s Satire -- Mandeville’s Paradox -- Selected Bibliography -- Notes on the Contributors.

Abstract: For centuries readers have admired the writer who wields his pen like a sword - an Aristophanes, a Rabelais, a Montaigne, a Swift. Using ribaldry, satire and irony in varying proportions, such writers pierce the thick, comfortable hide of society and uncover, predictably, the corruption and hypocrisy that characterize the life of man in commercial society. Though a lesser talent than any of these literary giants, Bernard Mande­ ville is nevertheless a member of their class. The crucial year in the emergence of his reputation was 1723, the year in which he added his controversial Essay on Charity and Charity-Schools to his Fable of the Bees. From that point on he became one of the most reviled targets of the public guardians of morality and religion; for some he appeared to be truly the Devil incarnate, Mandevil, as Fielding and others spelled it. This reputation was attached to his name well into the nineteenth centu­ ry. In a diary entry for June 1812 Henry Crabb Robinson recorded the following conversation with the elderly Mrs. Buller: "She received me with a smile, and allowed me to touch her hand. 'What are you reading, Mr. Robinson?' she said. 'The wickedest cleverest book in the English language, if you chance to know it. ' - 'I have known the "Fable of the Bees" more than fifty years. ' She was right in her guess.

Abstract: I: St. Bartholomew and Europe -- 1. The Massacre of St. Bartholomew and the Problem of Spain -- 2. Reactions to the St. Bartholomew Massacres in Geneva and Rome25 -- 3. The Elizabethans and St. Bartholomew -- 4. Imperialism, Particularism and Toleration in the Holy Roman Empire -- II: Two Unpublished Documents -- 5. Tomasso Sassetti’s Account of the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre -- 6. The Discourse Dedicated to Count Guido San Giorgio Aldobrandini -- III: Martyrs, Rioters and Polemicists -- 7. Martyrs, Myths, and the Massacre: The Background of St. Bartholomew -- 8. The Rites of Violence: Religious Riot in Sixteenth-Century France -- 9. The Wars of Religion in Seventeenth-Century Huguenot Thought -- Conclusion: St. Bartholomew and Historical Perspective -- Notes on the Contributors.

Abstract: On 18 August 1572, Marguerite de Valois, sister of King Charles IX, was married in Paris to Henri de Navarre, "first prince of the blood" and a Protestant. This union, which was to cement the provisions of the Peace of St. Germain (1570) ending the third of the French wars of religion, was the occasion of an extraordinary influx of French Calvin­ ists into the notoriously Catholic capital. Hundreds of Huguenots had journeyed to Paris to honor their titular leader and participate in the wedding celebrations. Tensions were already running high when the court made the fatal decision to take advantage of the situation and assassinate the admiral of France, Gaspard de Coligny, the recognized leader of the Huguenot armies which had helped plunge the country into ten years of intermittent civil war, and who now threatened to embroil the kingdom in a full-scale foreign war with Spain. On Friday the twenty-second, as he returned from the Louvre to his lodgings, Coligny paused in the street - some say to receive a letter, others to doff his hat to an acquaintance or to adjust his hose - and was fired on by a hired assassin hidden in a house known to belong to one of the ultra-Catholic Guise faction. The arquebus shot missed its mark and succeeded only in wounding the admiral in his hand and arm, where­ upon he was carried by his followers to his bed.

Abstract: I. Pascal’s Three Orders as the Basis of a Scale of Values -- II. Pascal’s Ambivalent Attitude toward Natural Morality -- 1. The Pensées and Minor Works -- 2. The Provinciales -- III. Pascal’s Authoritarian Approach to Ethics in the Provinciales -- IV. Pascal’s Rejection of Contemporary Aristocratic Morality -- V. Problems Inherent in the Three Orders as Applied to Moral Questions -- VI. Pascal’s Teleological Approach to Ethics in the Pensées -- VII. Conclusion: Moral Value as a Perspective of the Three Orders.

Abstract: The aim of these studies is to show how Pascal's moral outlook reflects the influence on his thought of the basic doctrine of the three orders. This does not mean that an attempt is made to classify all Pascal's moral judgements in order to relate them to that doctrine. The intention is rather to dIstinguish the different moral stances Pascal takes, and to ascertain how far the apparent inconsistencies between them can be explained, if not reconciled, in the light of the orders. It is made clear at the outset how the three orders form the framework of Pascal's scale of values, with the different orders representing at once categories of moral value and orders of being. The peculiar nature of this scale, in which moral and ontological values coalesce, calls for a double criterion, or variable, to allow for differences both of degree and of kind. Since the criterion of rank in the scale is reality, the assigning of value becomes largely a question of perspective: a quality from a given order taken by itself is real, and has moral value, but when compared with a quality from a higher order it loses both its reality and its worth.

Abstract: I. Introduction -- II. Royalist and Parliamentarian Historians before the Restoration -- 1. Survey of the Historians -- 2. Peter Heylyn -- 3. Thomas Fuller -- III. Royalist Historians from the Restoration to 1702 -- 1. Survey of the Historians -- 2. Thomas Hobbes -- 3. John Hacket -- IV. Rushworth and Nalson -- V. Whitelocke -- VI. Baxter -- VII. Parliamentarian and Whig Historians from the Restoration to 1702 -- 1. Survey of the Historians -- 2. Edmund Ludlow and Mrs. Lucy Hutchinson -- 3. Gilbert Burnet -- VIII. Clarendon -- IX. Conclusion -- Appendix The surfeit of Peace and Plenty.

Abstract: This is a study of the histories of the English Civil War or some aspects of it written in England or by Englishmen and Englishwomen or publish­ ed in England up to 1702, the year of the publication of the first volume of Clarendon's History of the Rebellion. By the terms of this definition, Clarendon is himself, of course, one of the historians studied. Clarendon's History is so formidable an achievement that all historians writing about the war before its publication have an air of prematureness. Nevertheless, as I hope the following pages will show, they produced a body of writing which may still be read with interest and profit and which anticipated many of the ideas and attitudes of Clarendon's History. I will even go so far as to say that many readers who have only a limited interest or no in­ terest in the Civil War are likely to find many of these historians interest­ ing, should their works come to their attention, for their treatment of the problems of man in society, for their psychological acuteness, and for their style. But while I intend to show their merits, my main concern will be to show how the Civil War appeared to historians, including Clarendon, who wrote within one or two generations after it, that is to say, at a time when it remained part of the experience of people still alive. A word is necessary on terminology.

Abstract: Semantics and Lexicography: Towards a New Type of Unilingual Dictionary -- Arguments and Predicates in the Logico-Semantic Structure of Utterances -- I. Linguistic Indices as Arguments of Type 1 -- II. Arguments of Type 2 -- III. Arguments of Type 3 -- IV. Concluding Remarks -- Remarks on Definitions in Natural Language -- 1. Introduction -- 2. On the Syntactic Form and the Semantic Interpretation of Definitions -- 3. Lexical Relatedness of Grammars -- 4. Lexical Aspects and Ostensive Definitions -- 5. Partial and Complete Definitions -- 6. Redundant Definitions, Linguistic and Encyclopedic Knowledge -- 7. Generic Sentences and Completing Definitions -- Generative Semantics vs. Deep Syntax -- Lexis — Affirmation — Négation: Étude Fondée Sur Les Classes -- 0. Introduction -- 1. Univers de départ -- 2. Les lexis -- 3. Parcours, extraction et fléchage -- 4. Modalités du type M1 (assertion) -- 5. Schéma résumant les rélations entre les ensembles introduits aux paragraphes précédents -- Bibliographie -- Types of Lexical Information -- 0. The Lexicon -- 1. The Speech Act -- 2. Elementary Semantic Properties of Verbs -- 3. Predicate Structure -- 4. Case Structure -- 5. Surface Realization of Arguments -- 6. Meaning vs. Presupposition -- 7. Evaluative and Orientative Features -- 8. Functional Shift -- 9. Deep-Structure Acceptability -- 10. Government -- 11. Transformationally Introduced Predicators -- 12. Subject and Object -- 13. Sample Lexical Entries -- Remarks on Selectional Restrictions and Presuppositions -- 1. Introduction -- 2. Chomskian Framework and McCawley’s Criticism -- 3. McCawley’s Treatment of Selectional Restrictions and Presupposition -- 4. Criticism against McCawley’s Claim, 1; Gender Agreement in the General Case of Pronominalization -- 5. Criticism against McCawley’s Claim, 2; Gender Agreement in French -- 6. An Alternative Proposal Indicated -- 7. Selectional Feature as Structural Change of a Transformation -- 8. Relativization and Pronominalization as Feature Agreement Transformation -- 9. Transformations as Partial Well-Formedness Conditions -- 10. Gender Agreement; Grammatical and Natural Gender -- 11. Concluding Remarks -- Evidence for Deep Structure Constraints in Syntax -- 0. The Problem -- 1. The Unlike-Subject Constraint in English -- 2. The Like-Subject Constraint in Serbo-Croatian -- On the Structural Analysis and Typology of Poetic Images -- 0. Introduction -- 1. On the Problems of Poetic Images in General -- 2. The Definition and Analysis of Images. The Typology of Images -- 3. The Analysis of Single Images -- 4. The Linguistic Analysis of the “Image Field” of a Work -- 5. Summary -- L’Ordre des Mots et la Sémantique -- Bibliographie -- Index of Names.

Abstract: In the last decade a profound change has occurred in linguistic science. Not only have old problems been tackled from an entirely new point of view but also quite a few new fields of linguistic research have been opened. The common characteristic of the majority of the theories and methods developed recently is the search for a more adequate description of language. Adequacy does not mean simply that the theory must conform to the facts. It must also meet the general requirements of present-day theories: coherence, clear-cut notions, rigor of presentation. It has also become abundantly clear that linguistic research cannot be content with the registration and classification of linguistic phenomena. In one way or another linguistics must try to explain the deep-seated regularities in language which in general do not appear on the surface in some straightforward way. Therefore, we find the attribute 'deep' very often in contemporary linguistic literature. Linguistic theories seek an explanation for the observed facts in terms of a system of hypotheses about the functioning of language. As research proceeds these will undergo essential changes. Some of them will be waived, others com­ plemented. The papers of the present volume follow these general principles of linguistic theory though they may differ from each other in the way of presentation considerably. Some of the papers make use of the framework of transformational-generative grammar (e. g. Kuroda; Perlmutter), others approach the pertinent problem from a different angle (e. g. Dupraz and Rouault; Apresyan, Mel'cuk, and Zolkovski).

Abstract: Further Remarks on the Pragmatics of Natural Languages -- Remarks on Logic as Universal Semantics -- Some Remarks on Grice’s Views about the Logical Particles of Natural Language -- Formal Message Theory -- A Step toward a Theory of Linguistic Performance -- On Subdividing Semiotic -- Some Thoughts on the Formal Approach to the Philosophy of Language -- The New Rhetoric -- On Linguistic Competence -- Language Communication with Children—Toward a Theory of Language Use -- Some Aspects of Language Acquisition.

Abstract: In June 22-27,1970, an International Working Symposium on Pragmatics of Natural Languages took place in Jerusalem under the auspices of The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities and the Division of Logic, Methodology and Philosophy of Science of the International Union of History and Philosophy of Science.! Some thirty philosophers, logicians, linguists, and psychologists from Israel, U.S.A., West-Germany, England, Belgium, France, Scotland, and Denmark met in seven formal and a number of informal sessions in order to discuss some ofthe problems around the use and acquisition oflanguage which in the eyes of an increasing number of scholars have been left under­ treated in the recent upsurge ofinterest in theoretical linguistics and philos­ ophy of language. More specifically, during the formal sessions the following topics were discussed: The validity of the syntactics-seman tics-pragmatics trichotomy The present state of the competence-performance issue Logic and linguistics The New Rhetoric Speech acts Language acquisition. The participants in the Symposium distributed among themselves re­ prints and preprints of relevant material, partly in advance of the meeting, partly at its beginning. Each session was introduced by one or two modera­ tors, and summaries of each day's proceedings were prepared and distri­ buted the next day. The participants were invited to submit papers after the symposium, written under its impact. The eleven essays published here are the result.

Abstract: I / Reference and Predication -- Identity and Reference -- Back-Reference -- On Predication and Logical Syntax -- Substance Logic -- Prime Matter, Predication, and the Semantics of Feature-Placing -- II / Truth and Meaning -- A counterexample to Tarski-Type Truth-Definitions as Applied to Natural Languages -- On Representing ‘True-in-L’ in L -- Necessity, Quotation, and Truth: An Indexical Theory -- Presuppositional Policies -- The Dilemma between Orthodoxy and Identity -- III / Pragmatics -- Indicative Conditionals -- Conversational Maxims and Rationality -- On Relating Pragmatics, Linguistics, and Non-Semiotic Disciplines -- Towards an Integrated Theory of Grammatical and Pragmatical Meaning -- IV / Methodological Studies -- Problems and Mysteries in the Study of Human Language -- How Empirical is Contemporary Logical Empiricism? -- Basic Aspects of the Theory of Grammatical Form -- V / Language Varieties -- Social Differentiation of Language Structure -- Talking with Children, Piaget Style -- Can Adults Become Genuinely Bilingual? -- VI / Formalizations -- Epistemic Interpretation of Conditionals -- The Role of Categorial Syntax in Grammatical Theory -- On Harris’s Systems of Report and Paraphrase -- Two-Dimensional Propositional Tense Logics -- VII / Points of View -- Levels of Meaning and Moral Discourse -- A Problem in Plato’s Laws -- Discourse as a Means to Enlightenment -- Points of View -- Index of Names.

Abstract: Yehoshua Bar-Hillel (1915-1975) was one of the leading intellectuals of Israel and of the world. His work ranged over mathematics, applied logic, communication theory, analytic philosophy, philosophy of science, and linguistics. Creative, patient, attentive, and critical, Bar-Hillel was a superb philosopher. In addition, how humane he was may be learned from the memorial tributes to him which initiate this volume. Bar-Hillel was born in Vienna, and came to Israel, then Palestine, in 1933. He took his M. A. (1938) and Ph. D. (1949) at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, where his subsequent career continued, as Research Fellow (1949-53), Senior Lecturer in Philosophy (1953-58), Associate Professor of Philosophy (1958-61), and Professor of Logic and Philosophy of Sci­ ence (1961-75). He was often abroad as visiting professor (Berkeley, 1960- 61; Michigan, 1965; La Jolla, 1966-67; Konstanz, 1971; Berlin, 1972), or as a research scholar, notably at the M. lT. Research Laboratory for Elec­ tronics during the early 1950's. Bar-Hillel was the Secretary and guiding spirit of the Organizing Committee for the 3rd International Congress for Logic, Methodology and Philosophy of Science, held in Jerusalem in 1964. During 1966-68, he was President of the Division of Logic, Method ology and Philosophy of SCience of the International Union of History and Philosophy of Science, and in 1967 President of the International Union. From 1963 he was a Member of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities.

Abstract: Section A / After the Kuhnian Revolution: New Trends in Metascience -- Prescriptive Theory and the Social Sciences -- Components of Scientific Activities, Their Characteristics and Institutionalisation in Specialties and Research Areas: A Framework for the Comparative Analysis of Scientific Developments -- On the Possibility of Objectivity and Moral Determinants in Scientific Change -- The Moral Limits of Scientific Research: An Evolutionary Approach -- Preserving Science: Virtuosity as Virtue -- Section B / Cognition and Communication in Science Development -- A Sociological Theory of Scientific Revolution -- The Social Function of Cognitive Structures: A Concept of the Scientific Community Within a Theory of Action -- The Nature of Scientific Consensus and the Case of the Social Sciences -- Images of the World and Societal Icons -- Section C / Societal Components in Scientific Development -- Measurable Aspects of the Concept of Scientific Career -- Scientists from Rich and Poor Countries -- The Autonomy of Science in Totalitarian Societies: The Case of Nazi Germany -- Philanthropic Foundations and the Production of Knowledge — A Case Study -- Comment on David E. Morrison’s Paper on Philanthropic Foundations and the Production of Knowledge – A Case Study -- The Social Determinants of Reproduction Science and Technology -- Social Technologists and Social Emancipists: Factors in the Development of Sociology -- Index of Names -- Index of Subjects.

Abstract: This book constitutes the outcome of an international conference held at the Otto-Mobes-Volkswirtschaftsschule, Graz-Stifting( Austria), from June 16 to 22, 1974. The conference was initiated by a project group working on determinants and controls of social science development at the In­ stitute for Advanced Studies and Scientific Research in Vienna and or­ ganized by the editors of this volume. It was held under the auspices of the Austrian Ministry of Science and Research. The main topics of the conference were those at the forefront of the 'state of argumentation' (to borrow from one of our contributors) in philosophy and sociology of science ever since the controversy between Thomas S. Kuhn and Sir Karl R. Popper has sharpened our awareness for the methodological and substantial presuppositions involved with questions of growth and development in science. Let us give two examples of those topics. The borderline between sociology of science and philo­ sophy of science has become more and more unclear; while the work of at least some philosophers of science comes to have an empirical flavour, sociologists of science are increasingly apt to include logical and methodo­ logical components of the research process as their objects of examina­ tion. Papers included in this volume testify to both tendencies.

Abstract: I The Concordat of 1801 The Nexus of the Religio-Political Policy of Napoleon Bonaparte -- I. The Concordat of 1801 -- II. Bonaparte’s Motives for Negotiating the Concordat -- III. Negotiation of the Concordat -- IV. The Concordat Provided a Modus Vivendi on Questions Basic to the Power of Each Ruler -- V. Ratification and Promulgation of the Concordat -- VI. Observations on Bonaparte’s Religious Policy -- II The Congregation of the Mission Within the Napoleonic Religio-Political Policy -- I. Historical Survey of Pre-Napoleonic Lazarists 1625–1800 -- II. Early Relations of the Lazarists with Bonaparte -- III. The Legal Reestablishment of the Congregation of the Mission -- IV. The Lazarists Subsequent to their Reestablishment — External Problems -- V. The Lazarists Subsequent to their Reestablishment — Internal Problems -- VI. Suppression of the Lazarists in France -- III Sequel to the Nepoleonic Reestablishment of the Congregation of the Mission -- I. The Congregation of the Mission in the Post-Napoleonic Period -- II. Recapitulation.

Abstract: Neither in English nor in French is there a published study of Napoleon Bonaparte's reestablishment in France of the Congregation of the Mis­ 1 sion, whose members are generally known in France as Lazarists. This study, Napoleon and the Lazarists, 1804-1809, examines the reestablish­ ment of the Congregation of the Mission in France and its subsequent relations with the Napoleonic Government. Because religion played an important role in the policies and plans of Napoleon, this study is set with­ in the framework of Napoleon's general religio-political policy. Since the Concordat of 1801 was the legal instrument by which the Catholic Church was reestablished in France and also a necessary preliminary to and a model for the reestablishment of the Lazarists, its negotiation is treated in detail. The examination of the reestablishment of the Congre­ gation of the Mission in France under Napoleon Bonaparte and its sub­ sequent history between 1804 and 1809 follows. It is a study in microcosm which reflects Napoleon's general religio-political policies. Who are the Lazarists? The name Lazarist originates from St. Lazare, the original Motherhouse in Paris of the Congregation of the Mission of St. Vincent de Paul. St. Vincent de Paul founded the Congregation of the Mission in 1625. With the cooperation of St. Louise de Marillac, he also founded the Congregation of the Daughters of Charity.

Abstract: One Introduction -- I. Reason and Religion -- II. Chillingworth’s Common-Sense Anglicanism -- III. Chillingworth’s Legacy -- IV. Chillingworth’s Influence -- Two Society, Politics, and Religion The Career of an Anglican Conservative -- I. Education and Ecclesiastical Career -- II. Irenicum -- III. Toleration -- IV. Glorious Revolution -- V. Stillingfleet’s Conservatism -- Three the Reasonableness of Christianity Part One -- I. The Common-Sense Defense of Religion -- II. The Problem of Certainty -- III. Anti-Catholic Writings -- IV. Protestant Infallibility -- V. Stillingfleet’s Theory of Certainty -- VI. Reasonable Faith -- VII. Miracles -- VIII. Miracles (continued) -- IX. Conclusion -- Four the Reasonableness of Christianity Part Two -- I. Divine Faith -- II. Divine Mysteries -- III. John Toland and John Locke -- IV. Summary -- Five the Defense of Natural Religion -- I. Introduction -- II. Reason and the Principles of Natural Religion -- III. The Existence of God -- IV. The Immortality of the Soul -- V. Summary -- Six Conclusion -- Appendix A: An Essay on Biography -- Appendix B: Stillingfleet’s Influence -- Index of Names.

Abstract: I. Reason and Religion "Si on soumet tout a la raison, notre religion n'aura rien de mysterieux et de surnaturel; si on choque les principes de la raison, notre religion sera absurde et ridicule",l In this passage from his Pensees Pascal summarizes what is perhaps the most basic problem for the defender of the reasonableness of Christianity: the necessity of upholding beliefs which Reason is incapable of judging, while at the same time claiming that those beliefs are reasonable. Pascal does not state the problem in precisely these terms regarding the limits of Reason, yet it seems clear that the dilemma he is indicating involves the question of the relation of religious beliefs to the compass of Reason. He does not, however-at least in the passage cited-indicate that the problem is a question of either/or: either Reason and no Religion, or Religion and Irrationality. Rather, he seems to be simply stating what he perceives to be a simple matter of fact. If Reason is allowed to be the judge of all Religion, then all Religion must abandon any elements that are either contrary to reason or cannot be shown to be in accord with Reason. On the other hand, if Reason is not allowed to judge Religion at all, then Religion will be absurd and ridiculous.

Abstract: Inhalt/Contents -- 1903 -- 1. Studien über das Tonsystem und die Musik der Japaner / Studies on the tonsystem and music of the Japanese -- 2. Besprechung von/review of Viktor Goldschmidt Über Harmonie und Komplikation -- 1904 -- 3. Phonographierte türkische Melodien / Turkish melodies recorded on the phonograph -- 4. Phonographierte indische Melodien / Indian melodies recorded on the phonograph -- 5. Über die Bedeutung des Phonographen für die vergleichende Musikwissenschaft / On the significance of the phonograph for comparative musicology -- 6. Melodischer Tanz. Eine musikpsychologische Studie / Melodic dance. A musico-psychological study -- 7 Besprechung von/review of Georg Capellen. Op. 26. Shogaku Shoka, Japanische Volksmelodien -- 8. Besprechung von/review of Franz Exner Über die Grundempfindungen im Young-Helmholtzschen Farbensystem und Zur Charakteristik der schönen und häßlichen Farben -- 9. Besprechung von/review of Charles S. Myers (Sinnesphysiologischer und psychologischer Teil der) Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits. Vol. II. Pt. II. (II. Hearing, III. Smell, IV. Taste, VIII. Reaction-Times) -- 10. Besprechung von/review of Robert Lach Über einen interessanten Spezialfall von „Audition colorée“ -- 11. Besprechung von/review of Max Meyer Experimental studies in the Psychology of Music -- 1905 -- 12. Die Probleme der vergleichenden Musikwissenschaft / The problems of comparative musicology -- 13. Über die Harmonisierbarkeit exotischer Melodien / On the question of harmonization of exotic melodies -- 14. Besprechung von/review of A. F. Chamberlain Primitive Taste-words -- 15. Besprechung von/review of H. E. Ziegler Der Begriff des Instinktes einst und jetzt -- 16. Besprechung von/review of Hans Held Untersuchungen über den feineren Bau des Ohrlabyrinthes der Wirbeltiere. I. Zur Kenntnis des Cortischen Organs und der übrigen Sinnesapparate des Labyrinthes bei Säugetieren -- 17. Besprechung von/review of Ernst Jentsch Musik und Nerven. I. Naturgeschichte des Tonsinns -- 18. Besprechung von/review of Charles S. Myers The Taste-names of primitive peoples -- 1906 -- 19. Phonographierte Indianermelodien aus Britisch-Columbia / Indian melodies from British Columbia recorded on the phonograph -- 20. Phonographierte tunesische Melodien / Tunesian melodies recorded on the phonograph -- 21. Besprechung von/review of Ernest Closson Chansons populaires des provinces Belges -- 22. Besprechung von/review of M. Marage Sensibilité spéciale de l’oreille physiologique pour certaines voyelles und Contribution à l’étude de l’organe de Corti und Pourquoi certains sourds-muets entendent mieux les sons graves que les sons aigus.

Abstract: 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Historical development of molecular virology -- 1.2 What is a virus? -- 1.3 Titration of viruses -- 1.4 Virus-host interactions -- 2 The virion -- 2.1 Principles of virion construction -- 2.2 Special features of virion anatomy -- 2.3 Viral nucleic acids -- 2.4 The virion: function -- 3 The virus-infected cell -- 3.1 Transcription and translation in the virus-infected cell -- 3.2 Post-translational modification of proteins -- 3.3 Genome replication -- 3.4 Virus assembly -- 3.5 Virus release -- 3.6 Temperate phage and lysogeny -- 4 Virus genetics -- 4.1 Mutations -- 4.2 Functional or complementation analysis -- 4.3 Fundamental studies in recombination -- 4.4 Chromosome mapping -- 4.5 Genetic recombination -- 5 Tumour virology -- 5.1 What is a tumour? -- 5.2 Causation of tumours -- 5.3 Papovaviruses -- 5.4 RNA tumour viruses -- 5.5 Comparison of transformation by DNA and RNA tumour viruses; oncogene theory -- Suggestions for further reading.

Abstract: 1. 1 Historical development of molecular virology of effort on a limited number of phages, Viruses have occupied a central position in notably the Escherichia coli phages T2 and T4. molecular biology ever since its development as At the same time Lwoff and his colleagues were an independent discipline. Indeed, molecular studying phage A, a temperate phage of E. coli, biology itselflargely developed out of the work which was to lead to equally fundamental pioneer studies of Delbriick, Luria and Hershey, observations on the regulation of macro­ who realized, in the late 1930's, that bacterial molecular synthesis. viruses (bacteriophages, often abbreviated to The study of animal and plant viruses has its phages) had properties which made them origins in the latter half of the 19th century uniquely suitable as a model system for an and was largely initiated by workers in medical, attack on one of the then outstanding problems veterinary and agricultural disciplines. Many of of biology, the definition of the gene in their practical successes owe little to molecular physical and chemical terms. The favourable biology, stemming instead from those properties of these viruses include the rapidity approaches successful in combating other of their growth, their ease of assay, and the parasites, such as vector control and the availability of easily scored genetic markers. breeding of resistant varieties of plants.

Abstract: I Approach to Hadewijch -- II The Stanza -- III Rhyme -- IV Sound and Music -- V Repetition -- VI Psychology and Style -- VII Imagery: Nature and Society -- VIII Imagery: Der Minnen Lant; General Remarks -- IX Aspects of Internal form -- Supplement: Two Poems -- Appendix: Table of distribution of masculine and feminine rhymes. -- Index of quotations.

Abstract: I. Spanish Logicians of Montaigu College -- A. The University of Paris and Terminist Logic -- B. Montaigu College and the Spanish Logicians -- C. Vives’ Criticism of Terminist Logic -- II. Vitoria, Salamanca and the American Indians -- A. Vitoria in Paris (1509–1522) -- B. Vitoria and Salamanca (1524–1546) -- C. Vitoria and Spanish Renaissance Scholasticism -- D. Vitoria’s Thought -- III. Fray Luis de Léon and the Concern with Language -- A. Fray Luis de Léon: The Man and His Work -- B. The Concern with Language During the Renaissance -- C. Fray Luis’ Philosophy of Language -- IV. Juan Huarte’s Naturalistic Philosophy of Man -- A. Medicine and Renaissance Naturalism -- B. Juan Huarte’s Examen de Ingenios -- Index of Names.

Abstract: In spite of its carefully planned - and fully justified - modesty, the title of this book might very well surprise more than one potential reader. It is not normal to see such controversial concepts as "Renaissance," "Renaissance Thought," "Spanish Renaissance," or even "Spanish Thought" freely linked together in the crowded intimacy of one single printed line. The author of these essays is painfully aware of the com­ plexity of the ground he has dared to cover. He is also aware that all the assumptions and connotations associated with the title of this book have been the subject of great controversy among scholars of high repute who claimed (and probably had) revealing insight into human affairs and ideas. That these pages have been written at all therefore needs some justification. I am convinced that certain of the disputes among historians of ideas do not touch upon matters of substance, but rather reveal the taste and intellectual idiosyncracies of their authors. Much of the disagreement is, I think, a matter of aesthetics. Those who find special gratification in well-defined labels, clear-cut schemes, and compre­ hensive generalizations, can hardly bear the company of those who insist upon detail, complexity, and organic growth. The nightmarish dilemma, still unresolved, between Unity and Diversity, between the Universal and the Individual, haunts the History of Ideas.

Abstract: I. Claude Fleury and His Career -- 1. College and Introduction to Society -- 2. Lawyer, Priest, and Humanist -- 3. Teacher and Scholar -- II. The Socio-Cultural Environment -- 1. The Structure of French Society -- 2. The European Cultural Environment -- III. Colleges, Petites Ecoles, and Academies: The Educational Context of Fleury’s Traite -- 1. Sixteenth-Century Origins -- 2. Mother Tongue and Education for Life -- 3. The Great Secondary School Traditions: University, Jesuit, Oratorian, and Port-Royalist -- 4. The Petites Ecoles, Education of the Poor, and Other Educational Endeavors -- IV. Claude Fleury as an Educational Historian -- 1. The Beginnings of a Tradition -- 2. On the Writing of History -- 3. Languages, Libraries, and Colleagues: The Tools of the Trade -- 4. A Place in the Age of Erudition -- V. Fleury’s Survey of Educational History -- 1. A Question of Text -- 2. Fleury’s Survey of Educational History -- 3. A Central Theme -- 4. The Traité and Some Examples of Educational Historiography Before and After It -- VI. The Choice and Method of Studies -- 1. The Sources of Fleury’s Educational Thought -- 2. School, Society, and Students: The Foundations of a Curriculum Theory -- 3. A Matter of Choice: Selectivity in Studies -- 4. Fleury as an Educational Thinker: A Summing Up -- VII. The Spread and Impact of Fleury’s Educational Thought -- 1. Fleury and his Associates: Bossuet and Fénelon -- 2. Fleury’s Educational Writings and the Evolution of Education in France -- 3. Fleury, Locke, and the Encyclopedists -- 4. Translations and Reputation Abroad -- 5. Fleury and Education in the United States -- VIII. Claude Fleury, Educational Historiographer and Thinker: A Synthesis.

Abstract: This study has grown out of an interest in French education and cul­ ture that dates from fondly remembered student days in France. Specifically, it is an attempt to explain the educational thought of Claude Fleury, a literate, responsible homme de leUres who analyzed the historical origins of public education as it existed in seventeenth-cen­ tury France and, on that basis, proposed what he considered to be a more generally useful program of studies. Generous space has been devoted to historical, social, and pedagogical background in an effort to place Fleury's thought in its proper cultural context; namely, that of the decline of the Classical Age and the dawn of the Age of Reason. This background material represents also an attempt to explain, at times in detail, the origin of Fleury's Traite du Choix et de la Methode des Etudes and his rise to scholarly and pedagogical prominence at court. It is possible that Fleury's thought, while of most immediate interest to students of seventeenth-century cultural history, will be of interest also to a more general audience. In particular, those charged with providing education that must respond to the ever increasing practical needs of society and at the same time give to contemporary man a of his cultural heritage may find in Fleury's thought some useful sense historical perspective. It is a pleasure to acknowledge that this study would not have been possible without the encouragement and guidance of Dr. William W.

Abstract: I. The Indicative Conditional -- II. Mathematical Theory of Probabilistic Consistency and Universal Probabilistic Soundness -- III. Motives for Wanting to Assure the Soundness of Reasoning: Truth and Probability as Desirable Attributes of Conclusions Reached in Reasoning -- IV. A Hypothesis Concerning Counterfactuals; Probability Change Aspects of Inference -- Index of Names -- Index of Subjects.

Abstract: Of the four chapters in this book, the first two discuss (albeit in consider­ ably modified form) matters previously discussed in my papers 'On the Logic of Conditionals' [1] and 'Probability and the Logic of Conditionals' [2], while the last two present essentially new material. Chapter I is relatively informal and roughly parallels the first of the above papers in discussing the basic ideas of a probabilistic approach to the logic of the indicative conditional, according to which these constructions do not have truth values, but they do have probabilities (equal to conditional probabilities), and the appropriate criterion of soundness for inferences involving them is that it should not be possible for all premises of the inference to be probable while the conclusion is improbable. Applying this criterion is shown to have radically different consequences from the orthodox 'material conditional' theory, not only in application to the standard 'fallacies' of the material conditional, but to many forms (e. g. , Contraposition) which have hitherto been regarded as above suspi­ cion. Many more applications are considered in Chapter I, as well as certain related theoretical matters. The chief of these, which is the most important new topic treated in Chapter I (i. e.

Abstract: Analytical Table of Contents -- 1: The Theory-ladenness of Observation -- 2: An Examination of Some Arguments and Criteria for Radical Meaning Variance -- 3: The Methodological Undesirability of Adopting a Position of Radical Meaning Variance -- 4: The Comparability of Scientific Theories.

Abstract: In this book I discuss the justification of scientific change and argue that it rests on different sorts of invariance. Against this background I con­ sider notions of observation, meaning, and regulative standards. My position is in opposition to some widely influential and current views. Revolutionary new ideas concerning the philosophy of science have recently been advanced by Feyerabend, Hanson, Kuhn, Toulmin, and others. There are differences among their views and each in some respect differs from the others. It is, however, not the differences, but rather the similarities that are of primary concern to me here. The claim that there are pervasive presuppositions fundamental to scientific in­ vestigations seems to be essential to the views of these men. Each would further hold that transitions from one scientific tradition to another force radical changes in what is observed, in the meanings of the terms employed, and in the metastandards involved. They would claim that total replace­ ment, not reduction, is what does, and should, occur during scientific revolutions. I argue that the proposed arguments for radical observational variance, for radical meaning variance, and for radical variance of regulative standards with respect to scientific transitions all fail. I further argue that these positions are in themselves implausible and methodologically undesirable. I sketch an account of the rationale of scientific change which preserves the merits and avoids the shortcomings of the approach of radical meaning variance theorists.

Abstract: I Montesquieu’s Definition of Justice: Precursors and Parallels -- I. Lexicographers -- II. Metaphysicians -- III. Moralists and Others -- IV. English Thinkers -- V. Aesthetic Ideas -- II Montesquieu’s Idea of Justice: Its Background, Meaning and Significance -- I. Biographical Origins -- II. Towards a Metaphysical Framework -- III. Justice and Law: the Significance of De l’Esprit des Lois, Bk. I -- IV. Justice and Law: an Alliance of Science and Morals -- V. Justice as a “Leitmotif”.

Abstract: Part One of Montesquieu's Idea of Justice comprises a survey of the currency in philosophical, ethical and aesthetic debate during the second half of the 17th century of the terms rapport and convenance, which are central to the enigmatic definition given to justice by Mon­ tesquieu in Lettres Persanes LXXXllI. In this survey, attention is concen­ trated on the way in which the connotations of these terms fluctuate with the divergent development of the methodological and speculative outgrowths of Cartesian ism into two schools of thought, materialist and idealist, often widely at variance in their views of the nature and orga­ nization of the universe. In Part Two, Montesquieu's definition of justice is set against this background, whose doctrinal conflicts, because of the characteristic as­ sociations of its key terms, it may be taken to reflect, just as it may be held to epitomize, by virtue of its elaboration in the opening chapter of De l' Esprit des Lois and its close terminological affinities with the defini­ tion of law there given, an undoubtedly related conflict between the implications of causal determinism and the aspirations of idealist meta­ physics surviving at the heart of Montesquieu's outlook, and, remaining unresolved, often said to impair the coherence if not the validity of his theory of society.