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  • 1
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    Online Resource
    Not All that it Seems : Narrowing of Gender Gaps in Employment during the Onset of COVID-19 in Indonesia (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (57 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Halim, Daniel Not All that it Seems: Narrowing of Gender Gaps in Employment during the Onset of COVID-19 in Indonesia
    Keywords: COVID Labor Market Impact ; COVID-19 Pandemic ; Employment and Gender ; Employment and Unemployment ; Female Employment ; Formal Job Loss ; Informal Sector ; Social Protections and Labor ; Urban Unemployment
    Abstract: This paper studies the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on Indonesia's labor market by exploiting the exogeneous timing of the pandemic in a seasonal difference-in-differences framework. The analysis uses multiple rounds of Indonesia's National Labor Force Survey from 2016 to 2020 to establish a pre-pandemic employment trend and then attribute any excess difference in employment outcomes from this trend as the estimated effect of the pandemic on individual employment outcomes. The results suggest that the pandemic has had mixed effects on the Indonesian labor market. While the pandemic has narrowed the gender gaps in employment participation through the "added worker effect" among women, it has also lowered the overall employment quality among both gender groups. The findings show that the increase in female employment is primarily driven by women in rural areas without high school education, entering informal work, agricultural employment, or unpaid family work. For men, the pandemic has had adverse impacts on their employment across the board in all sub-populations. Consistent with findings from other studies, steeper employment declines are observed in urban areas, particularly among males. Among those employed, both women and men work fewer hours and earn lower wages
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10337
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  • 2
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    Policy Lessons on Social Protection (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Gender Innovation Lab Federation Causal Evidence Series
    Keywords: Economic Shocks ; Gender ; Gender and Development ; Gender and Economics ; Gender and Social Policy ; Gender Monitoring and Evaluation ; Social Protection ; Vulnerability ; Women
    Abstract: Several circumstances make women more vulnerable to economic shocks than men. Women are more likely than men to be out of the labor force due to care responsibilities. When they work, women are more likely to have low-paying jobs in the informal sector. Moreover, women have lower access to financial services and other strategies to mitigate shocks. Social protection systems can enable women to cope with and adapt to economic shocks. In particular, adaptive social protection systems can help identify the differential needs of women to prepare support mechanisms and build the resilience of poor and vulnerable households before, during, and after large shocks like the COVID-19 pandemic occur. The GIL Federation is generating rigorous evidence around the world to understand what works, and what does not, in supporting women with social protection interventions. This note presents evidence on four key findings based on impact evaluations
    DOI: 10.1596/39433
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  • 3
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    Policy Lessons on Empowering Adolescent Girls (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Gender Innovation Lab Federation Causal Evidence Series
    Keywords: Adolescent Girls ; Education ; Gender ; Gender and Education ; Gender and Social Policy ; Gender Monitoring and Evaluation ; Girls Empowerment ; Life Skills
    Abstract: Adolescent girls face multiple challenges that restrict their horizons. They have to make decisions about employment and fertility at an early age with limited access to formal education and under restrictive social norms. Domestic responsibilities limit their time in school and educational achievement, in turn curtailing their ability to enter the labor force. The GIL Federation is generating rigorous evidence on what works, and what does not, in empowering adolescent girls. This note presents evidence on five key findings
    DOI: 10.1596/39426
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  • 4
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    Online Resource
    Policy Lessons on Facilitating Labor Markets (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Gender Innovation Lab Federation Causal Evidence Series
    Keywords: Gender ; Gender and Development ; Gender and Economics ; Gender Gap ; Gender Monitoring and Evaluation ; Labor Markets ; Training Programs ; Women
    Abstract: Significant gender gaps in labor force participation persist around the world. When women do work, they are much more likely than men to engage in vulnerable employment with lower earnings and worse working conditions. In addition, the COVID-19 pandemic has triggered larger losses in employment for women than for men across the globe. Several factors constrain women's labor force participation and employment outcomes. On the supply side, time and mobility constraints and differences in endowments (skills, assets, and networks) limit women's labor force participation and wages. On the demand side, discrimination in hiring and retention, lack of jobs with convenient features (childcare, maternity leave, flexible schedules), and skills mismatch are key constraints. All these are combined with contextual factors, including social and cultural norms, that restrict women's labor force participation. The GIL Federation is generating rigorous evidence around the world to understand what works, and what does not, in supporting women's labor market participation. This note presents evidence on seven key findings
    DOI: 10.1596/39434
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  • 5
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    Policy Lessons on Agriculture (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Gender Innovation Lab Federation Causal Evidence Series
    Keywords: Agriculture ; Cash Crop Production ; Digital Technologies ; Gender ; Gender and Development ; Gender and Economics ; Gender Monitoring and Evaluation ; New Markets ; Women Farmers
    Abstract: Gender productivity gaps in agriculture are large around the world, even though women comprise 40-50 percent of the agricultural labor force in developing countries. Gender differences in agricultural productivity can be as high as 66 percent and can cost countries up to USD 105 million annually. Women farmers tend to produce lower output per unit of land than men farmers because of gender-specific constraints, such as unequal access to farm labor, agricultural inputs, lower literacy, childcare responsibilities, limited involvement in cash crop production, and lower participation in farmers' groups. Women farmers are concentrated in the lower levels of agricultural value chains and are less likely to be active in commercial farming than men. Restrictive gender norms underlie occupational sex segregation in agriculture, leading women to concentrate in low-value crops. Research by the Africa GIL indicates that when women manage cash crop plots-and have access to the same inputs and resources as men-they are able to be as productive as their male counterparts. The GIL Federation is generating rigorous evidence around the world to understand what works, and what does not, in narrowing gender productivity gaps and helping farmers reach their potential. This note presents evidence on three key findings based on impact evaluations
    DOI: 10.1596/39430
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  • 6
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    Policy Lessons on Reducing Gender-based Violence (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Gender Innovation Lab Federation Causal Evidence Series
    Keywords: Economic Empowerment ; Gender ; Gender and Economics ; Gender Monitoring and Evaluation ; Gender-Based Violence ; Law and Development ; Protective Infrastructures ; Social Protection ; Women
    Abstract: Gender-based violence (GBV) affects more than one in three women over the course of their lifetimes, regardless of social or economic boundaries. Violence against women and girls takes a significant toll on survivors and their families and exacts heavy social and economic costs. In some countries, violence against women is estimated to cost up to 3.7 percent of GDP- more than double of what most governments spend on education. Lockdowns and reduced mobility during the COVID-19 pandemic led to sharp increases in violence against women and girls. The GIL Federation is generating rigorous evidence across the world to understand what works, and what does not, in reducing GBV. This note presents evidence on four key findings based on impact evaluations from three regions
    DOI: 10.1596/39425
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  • 7
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    Gendered Impacts of Climate Change : Evidence from Weather Shocks (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (35 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Fruttero, Anna Gendered Impacts of Climate Change: Evidence from Weather Shocks
    Keywords: Climate Shocks and Livelihoods ; Environment ; Gender and Climate Change ; Gender, Climate Change Impacts, Climate Change ; Gendered Educational Impacts of Climate Change ; Gendered Norms and Climate Change ; Gendered Vulnerability To Weather Shock ; Health Effects of Weather Shocks ; Women's Agency
    Abstract: Climate change is one of the defining challenges of our time. While the impacts of climate change on people's well-being can hardly be denied, it may not be as obvious that the impacts could differ by gender. However, as the COVID-19 pandemic has shown, a shock can impact men and women differently due to social norms and pre-existing gender differences. This paper reviews the economic literature linking weather shocks (such as floods, droughts, and extreme temperatures, among others) and a large range of outcomes (from endowments to economic opportunities and agency). Men and women indeed have specific vulnerabilities and exposures. Specific physiological vulnerabilities are relatively minor: boys are more vulnerable to shocks in utero and girls and women to heat. The biggest gendered impacts are due to existing gaps and social responses to shocks. In places with strong boy preferences, families facing scarcity due to disasters are more likely to give food and other resources to boys, take their daughters out of school or marry them young, or withdraw women from agricultural work so they focus on household chores. During or after weather shocks, boys can also be taken out of schools to be put at work and men working in agriculture are often forced to migrate to find alternative sources of income. Unless climate policy acknowledges and accounts for these differences, climate change will remain an amplifier of existing gender inequalities
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10442
    URL: Deutschlandweit zugänglich
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  • 8
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    Policy Lessons on Women's Land Titling (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Gender Innovation Lab Federation Causal Evidence Series
    Keywords: Gender ; Gender and Development ; Gender and Economics ; Gender Monitoring and Evaluation ; Land Titling ; Legal Provisions ; Monetary Incentives ; Women
    Abstract: Land is a key productive asset for rural households. Property rights play a critical role in determining who can own and access this fundamental resource. More than 70 percent of women across 53 developing countries do not own any land. Customary norms confer disproportionately weaker land rights to women, feeding into a cycle that limits their access to credit and other economic opportunities. Empowering women through stronger land rights can play a central role in the process of economic development. However, overturning existing cultural norms and power structures in the context of traditional (patriarchal) customary land tenure systems can be challenging. There are also concerns that such policy efforts could formalize, even exacerbate, existing gender gaps in land rights. The GIL Federation is generating rigorous evidence around the world to understand what works, and what does not, in increasing access to land titles for women and its effects on women's empowerment. This note presents evidence on three key findings
    DOI: 10.1596/39431
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  • 9
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    Policy Lessons on Access to and Uptake of Childcare Services (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Gender Innovation Lab Federation Causal Evidence Series
    Keywords: Affordability ; Childcare ; Father's Engagement ; Gender ; Gender and Development ; Gender and Economic Policy ; Gender Monitoring and Evaluation ; Women's Empowerment
    Abstract: Unpaid care work and the lack of access to affordable child care constitute key barriers to women's participation in labor markets. The International Labour Organization estimates that, in 2018, 647 million working-age adults were hindered from entering the workforce due to family responsibilities-94 percent of whom were women. In that year, women's unpaid care work amounted to three-quarters of total unpaid care work, with an estimated value of 9 precent of global GDP. A pilot study by the MNA GIL in Egypt finds that, on average, mothers spent 11 hours per day on childcare and seven hours per day doing household chores. The EAP GIL reviewed causal evidence on the effects of childcare interventions on maternal labor market engagement in low and middle-income countries and found positive impacts for 21 out of the 22 studies considered
    DOI: 10.1596/39429
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  • 10
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    Why do People Move? : A Data-Driven Approach to Identifying and Predicting Gender-Specific Aspirations to Migrate (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (51 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Halim, Daniel Why do People Move? A Data-Driven Approach to Identifying and Predicting Gender-Specific Aspirations to Migrate
    Keywords: International Labor Migration ; Machine Learning ; Migrant Household Survey Data ; Migration and Development ; Migration and Gender ; Migration Data by Gender ; Poverty Reduction ; Work Related Migration
    Abstract: Work-related migration has many potential drivers. While current literature has outlined a theoretical framework of various "push-pull" factors affecting the likelihood of international migration, empirical papers are often constrained by the scarcity of detailed data on migration, especially in developing countries, and are forced to look at few of these factors in isolation. When detailed data is available, researchers may face arbitrary choices of which variables to include and how to sequence their inclusion. As male and female migrants tend to face occupational segregation, the determinants of migration likely differ by gender, which compounds these data challenges. To overcome these three issues, this paper uses a rich primary household survey among migrant communities in Indonesia and employs two supervised machine-learning methods to identify the top predictors of migration by gender: random forests and least absolute shrinkage and selection operator stability selection. The paper confirms some determinants established by earlier studies and reveals several additional ones, as well as identifies differences in predictors by gender
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-10396
    URL: Deutschlandweit zugänglich
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  • 11
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    Policy Lessons on Improving Education Outcomes (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Gender Innovation Lab Federation Causal Evidence Series
    Keywords: Education ; Gender ; Gender and Development ; Gender and Education ; Gender Gap ; Gender Monitoring and Evaluation ; Improvement ; Training
    Abstract: Significant progress has been made in closing gender gaps in primary and secondary enrollment rates worldwide. However, girls still have lower expected years of schooling than boys in some regions, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, and boys have worse educational outcomes than girls in other countries, most notably in Latin America and the Caribbean. Barriers to the continuation of schooling for girls are linked to child marriage, early pregnancies, sexual harassment, and social norms around girls' education. The COVID-19 pandemic has also impacted schooling of both girls and boys. The transition to remote learning hurt girls who often have fewer technical skills and less access to the internet than boys.3 In other cases, boys had higher economic opportunities than girls and were more likely to drop out from school in response to the economic stress generated by the pandemic.4 The GIL Federation is generating rigorous evidence around the world to understand what works, and what does not, in narrowing gender gaps in education. This note presents evidence on three key findings
    DOI: 10.1596/39432
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  • 12
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    Policy Lessons on Supporting Women Entrepreneurs (2023)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource
    Series Statement: Gender Innovation Lab Federation Causal Evidence Series
    Keywords: Education ; Gender ; Gender and Development ; Gender and Economics ; Gender and Education ; Gender Monitoring and Evaluation ; Innovation ; Socio-Emotional Skills ; Women Entrepreneurs
    Abstract: Entrepreneurship can be a pathway to employment and economic empowerment for women. Over half of the women in developing countries are or aspire to be entrepreneurs, but most of them run subsistence oriented micro-businesses that are not seen as key drivers of innovation and growth. Among formal firms, the share of women-led businesses decreases as the size of the firm increases. Multiple factors-including lack of skills, networks, and access to finance, technology, and markets-constrain women's decision to become entrepreneurs and affect their choices concerning which sector to enter, how much to put into their firms, and which business practices and technology to adopt. Contextual factors, such as social norms, access to childcare, and risk of gender-based violence, also contribute to the gender gap in firm performance documented by the Africa GIL and the EAP GIL. The GIL Federation is generating rigorous evidence around the world to understand what works, and what does not, in addressing the differential constraints restricting the growth of women-led firms. This note presents evidence on five key findings
    DOI: 10.1596/39427
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  • 13
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    Gender Differences in Economics Course-Taking and Majoring : Findings from an RCT (2021)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (17 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Print Version: Halim, Daniel Gender Differences in Economics Course-Taking and Majoring: Findings from an RCT
    Keywords: College Major ; Economics of Education ; Education ; Gender ; Gender and Economics ; Gender and Education ; Randomized Control Trials ; Tertiary Education
    Abstract: This paper reports on gender differences in responses to a randomized controlled trial that provided encouragement and information nudges to take subsequent economics courses and major in the subject for students enrolled in large introductory economics classes at a large elite public university. Two treatments combined encouragement to major in economics with information on either financial or prosocial returns to the major. Men receiving either treatment were more likely to take an additional economics course, but not to major in economics. In contrast, the treatments were not estimated to significantly affect women's course-taking and majoring. Two treatment mediators are also examined: expected versus actual grade and having a female teaching assistant. There were also differing effects of mediators on treatment responses for men and women. Women were more nudge-able to take another course when they received a better-than-expected introductory class grade, and men were more nudge-able to take another course when they had a female teaching assistant
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-9732
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  • 14
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    Long-Term and Intergenerational Effects of Education : Evidence from School Construction in Indonesia (2021)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (82 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Print Version: Akresh, Richard Long-Term and Intergenerational Effects of Education: Evidence from School Construction in Indonesia
    Keywords: 1973-2016 ; Schulpolitik ; Schulbesuch ; Wirkungsanalyse ; Bildungsniveau ; Intergenerationale Übertragung ; Schätzung ; Indonesien
    Abstract: This paper studies the long-term and intergenerational effects of the 1970s Indonesian school construction program, which was one of the largest ever conducted. Exploiting variation across birth cohorts and districts in the number of schools built suggests that education benefits for men and women persist 43 years after the program. Exposed men are more likely to be formal workers, work outside agriculture, and migrate. Men and women who were exposed to the program have better marriage market outcomes with spouses that are more educated, and households with exposed women have improved living standards and pay more government taxes. Mother's program exposure, rather than father's, leads to education benefits that are transmitted to the next generation, with the largest effects in upper secondary and tertiary education. Cost-benefit analyses show that school construction leads to higher government tax revenues and improved living standards that offset construction costs within 30-50 years
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-9559
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  • 15
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    Childcare and Mothers' Labor Market Outcomes in Lower- and Middle-Income Countries (2021)
    Washington, D.C : The World Bank
    Details
    Language: English
    Pages: 1 Online-Ressource (34 pages)
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Print Version: Halim, Daniel Childcare and Mothers' Labor Market Outcomes in Lower- and Middle-Income Countries
    Keywords: Childcare ; Female Labor Force Participation ; Gender ; Gender and Development ; Gender and Economics ; Gender Innovation Lab ; Labor Markets ; Labor Policies ; Rural Development ; Rural Labor Markets ; Social Protections and Labor
    Abstract: Improving women's labor force participation and the quality of their employment can boost economic growth and support poverty and inequality reduction; thus, it is highly pertinent for the development agenda. However, most systematic reviews on female labor market outcomes and childcare, which can arguably improve these outcomes, are focused on developed countries. This paper reviews 22 studies that plausibly identify the causal impact of institutional childcare on maternal labor market outcomes in lower- and-middle-income countries. All but one study finds positive impacts on the extensive or intensive margin of maternal labor market outcomes, which aligns with findings for developed countries. The paper further analyzes aspects of childcare design, including hours, ages of children, and coordination with other childcare services that may increase the impacts on maternal labor market outcomes. The paper concludes with a discussion of directions for future research
    DOI: 10.1596/1813-9450-9828
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