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  • Online-Ressource  (34)
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  • 1
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    Promoting gender equality to strengthen economic growth and resilience (2023)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: 1 Online-Ressource (23 p.) , 21 x 28cm.
    Serie: OECD Economics Department Working Papers no.1776
    Paralleltitel: Parallele Sprachausgabe Promouvoir l'égalité des genres pour renforcer la croissance économique et la résilience
    Schlagwort(e): Economics ; Social Issues/Migration/Health
    Kurzfassung: Women’s employment rates and wages are still lagging those of men across OECD countries, with average employment and wage gaps now around 15% and 12% respectively. Gaps narrowed at a relatively modest pace over the past decade, calling for further policy action. A lack of affordable high-quality childcare is often an obstacle to women’s participation in the labour market and notably to working full time. A very unequal sharing of parental leave between parents and challenges upon return to work further hampers women’s careers. Biases in the tax system may discourage women from working in some countries. Women face disadvantage in accessing management positions and entrepreneurship. A range of policies can help reduce gender gaps, including better childcare provision, incentivising parents to better share parental leave, re-skilling and upskilling on return from parental leave, encouraging gender equality within firms, integration programmes for foreign-born women, promoting women entrepreneurship and financial inclusion, and levelling taxation for second earners. Moreover, the multiple dimensions and root causes of gender inequality call for mainstreaming gender across policy domains.
    DOI: 10.1787/54090c29-en
    URL: lizenzpflichtig
    Bibliothek Standort Signatur Band/Heft/Jahr Verfügbarkeit
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  • 2
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    Promouvoir l'égalité des genres pour renforcer la croissance économique et la résilience (2023)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Sprache: Französisch
    Seiten: 1 Online-Ressource (26 p.) , 21 x 28cm.
    Serie: OECD Economics Department Working Papers no.1776
    Paralleltitel: Parallele Sprachausgabe Promoting gender equality to strengthen economic growth and resilience
    Schlagwort(e): Economics ; Social Issues/Migration/Health
    Kurzfassung: Les taux d'emploi et les salaires des femmes restent inférieurs à ceux des hommes dans les pays de l'OCDE, avec des écarts moyens d'emploi et de salaire désormais autour de 15% et 12% respectivement. Les écarts se sont réduits à un rythme relativement modeste au cours de la dernière décennie, ce qui appelle de nouvelles mesures politiques. Le manque de services de garde d'enfants abordables et leur qualité insuffisante constituent souvent un obstacle à la participation des femmes au marché du travail et notamment au travail à temps plein. Un partage très inégal du congé parental entre les parents et les difficultés rencontrées lors du retour au travail entravent encore davantage les carrières des femmes. Les biais du système fiscal peuvent décourager les femmes de travailler dans certains pays. Les femmes sont désavantagées dans l’accès aux postes de direction et à l’entrepreneuriat. Différentes politiques peuvent contribuer à réduire les écarts entre les genres, notamment une meilleure offre de garde d'enfants, l'incitation des parents à mieux partager le congé parental, la reconversion et la formation au retour du congé parental, l'encouragement de l'égalité des genres au sein des entreprises, des programmes d'intégration pour les femmes nées à l'étranger, la promotion de l’entrepreneuriat féminin et l’inclusion financière, ainsi que l’égalisation de la fiscalité sur les deuxièmes apporteurs de revenu. En outre, les multiples dimensions et causes profondes des inégalités de genre soulignent l’importance d’intégrer la dimension de genre dans tous les domaines de l’action publique.
    DOI: 10.1787/d1f7a204-fr
    URL: lizenzpflichtig
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  • 3
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    The post-COVID-19 rise in labour shortages (2022)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: 1 Online-Ressource (29 p.) , 21 x 28cm.
    Serie: OECD Economics Department Working Papers no.1721
    Schlagwort(e): Arbeitsmarkt ; Coronavirus ; OECD-Staaten ; Economics
    Kurzfassung: The labour market recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic has been strong among advanced countries, partly reflecting massive and unprecedented policy support to workers and firms. This paper provides evidence and stylised facts about labour market tightening and labour shortages since the onset of the pandemic. Labour shortages have been widespread across countries, yet particularly in Australia, Canada and the United States; and across industries, yet particularly in contact-intensive ones like accommodation and food, but also manufacturing. This picture is to a good extent driven by cyclical factors: in tight labour markets, workers are more likely to switch for better job opportunities. But this paper argues, based on illustrative evidence, that other factors beyond the economic cycle may also play a role: the post-COVID-19 increase in labour shortages may partly reflect structural changes, in particular changes in preferences, as some workers may no longer accept low-pay and poor or strenuous working conditions.
    DOI: 10.1787/e60c2d1c-en
    URL: lizenzpflichtig
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  • 4
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    A cost-of-living squeeze? Distributional implications of rising inflation (2022)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: 1 Online-Ressource (32 p.) , 21 x 28cm.
    Serie: OECD Economics Department Working Papers no.1744
    Schlagwort(e): Inflation ; Verteilungswirkung ; Verbraucherpreisindex ; Schätzung ; OECD-Staaten ; Economics ; Energy
    Kurzfassung: Inflation has quickly and significantly increased in most OECD countries since the end of 2021 and further accelerated after Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine, mostly driven by surging energy and food prices. Certain categories of households are particularly vulnerable, as large parts of their consumption expenditures are devoted to energy and food. Drawing on national micro-based household budget surveys and on CPI data, this paper provides a quantification of the impact of rising prices on households’ welfare. Declines in household purchasing power between August 2021 and August 2022 are estimated to range from 3% in Japan to 18% in the Czech Republic. This decline is driven by energy prices in most countries, especially Denmark, Italy, and the United Kingdom, while energy prices play a lesser role in countries where inflation is more broad-based like the Czech Republic and the United States. In all considered countries, inflation weighs relatively more on low than high-income households. Rural households are hit particularly hard, most often more than low-incomes ones, and this is driven by energy price inflation. To cushion vulnerable households from rising inflation, especially from energy prices, these findings call for a careful targeting of income and price support measures, notwithstanding their administrative and logistical complexity, taking into account their effects on economic activity, inflation, and, last but not least, environmental goals.
    DOI: 10.1787/4b7539a3-en
    URL: lizenzpflichtig
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  • 5
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    Getting on the job ladder: The policy drivers of hiring transitions (2022)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: 1 Online-Ressource (88 p.) , 21 x 28cm.
    Serie: OECD Economics Department Working Papers no.1710
    Schlagwort(e): Economics
    Kurzfassung: This paper delivers new evidence for European countries on the role of a wide range of policies for workers’ mobility in terms of hiring transitions into jobs, with an emphasis on differences across socio-economic groups. Labour market transitions are relevant in the current context where the ongoing recovery from the COVID-19 crisis is characterised by labour shortages and at the same time still low employment in a number of countries. The analysis focuses on the probability to transition from unemployment and selected forms of inactivity (e.g. fulfilling domestic tasks, studying) to jobs and from one job to another. Results of this work show the strong association between hiring flows and the business cycle with specific patterns during recoveries, recessions and expansions. The analysis further reveals that a broad range of policies influence hiring transitions, such as labour market policies, taxes and social support programmes but also product market regulations and regulations affecting certain professions. Country-specific priorities will vary depending on context, challenges and social preferences. Yet common policy objectives at the current recovery context are likely to improve the job prospects of the non-employed, especially youth, low-skilled and women, to help the recovery, foster reallocation and to address labour shortages.
    DOI: 10.1787/0304c673-en
    URL: lizenzpflichtig
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  • 6
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    The laws of attraction: Economic drivers of inter-regional migration, housing costs and the role of policies (2021)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: 1 Online-Ressource (68 p.)
    Serie: OECD Economics Department Working Papers no.1679
    Schlagwort(e): Economics
    Kurzfassung: This paper sheds light on inter-regional migration, housing and the role of policies, drawing on a new comparative cross-country approach. The results show that OECD countries exhibit stark variation in both levels and trends in inter-regional migration, which is found to be highly responsive to local housing and economic conditions. In turn, a large number of policies in the area of housing, labour markets, social protection and product markets influence the responsiveness of inter-regional migration to local economic conditions. For instance, more flexible housing supply makes inter-regional migration more responsive to local economic conditions while higher regulatory barriers to business start-ups and entry in professions significantly reduce the responsiveness of inter-regional mobility to local economic conditions. The capacity of workers to move regions in response to local economic shocks is one key dimension of labour market dynamism which could, at the current juncture, contribute to the recovery from the COVID-19 crisis. In this context, the paper proposes articulating structural with place-based policies to help prospective movers as well as stayers.
    DOI: 10.1787/da8e368a-en
    URL: lizenzpflichtig
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  • 7
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    Labour market transitions across OECD countries: Stylised facts (2021)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: 1 Online-Ressource (55 p.) , 21 x 28cm.
    Serie: OECD Economics Department Working Papers no.1692
    Schlagwort(e): Arbeitsmarkt ; Arbeitsmobilität ; Arbeitslosigkeit ; OECD-Staaten ; Economics ; Amtsdruckschrift
    Kurzfassung: This paper provides a descriptive analysis of patterns and trends of worker transitions across European countries and the United States, with an emphasis on differences across socio-economic groups. Understanding labour market transitions is important to gauge the scope of labour market reallocation and scarring effects from the COVID-19 crisis. Results of this work show that labour market transitions vary significantly from one country to another and also within countries from one socio-economic group to another. For instance, women are much more likely than men to move in and out of jobs. This reflects the unequal burden of family-related work, which contributes to the higher propensity of women to drop out of the labour force. Zooming in on labour market transitions over the great financial crisis provides an illustration of the long-lasting effects and scarring risks associated with recessions on labour market transitions, especially for young people entering the labour market. The results of this granular analysis inform the policy debate for an efficient and inclusive recovery. While current priorities vary across countries based on economic and social context, one overarching challenge for the recovery is to facilitate hiring dynamics and to minimise long-term unemployment and scarring risks among vulnerable groups who have been hardest hit and face higher risks of scarring from the recession, in particular young people and women.
    DOI: 10.1787/62c85872-en
    URL: lizenzpflichtig
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  • 8
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    Migration, housing and regional disparities: A gravity model of inter-regional migration with an application to selected OECD countries (2021)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: 1 Online-Ressource (58 p.) , 21 x 28cm.
    Serie: OECD Economics Department Working Papers no.1691
    Schlagwort(e): Economics
    Kurzfassung: Inter-regional migration – the movements of the population from one region to another within the same country – can be an important mechanism of spatial economic adjustment, affecting regional demographic and growth patterns. This paper examines the economic and housing-related factors that affect the decision of people to migrate to another region within the same country, drawing empirical evidence from country-specific gravity models of inter-regional migration for 14 OECD countries. The results suggest that inter-regional migrants move in search of higher income and better employment opportunities, but are discouraged by high housing costs. In particular, house prices are found to be an important barrier to migration, especially in countries having experienced strong increases in the level and cross-regional dispersion of house prices. There is however large heterogeneity across countries in terms of what factors matter the most and in terms of the magnitude of the migration response.
    DOI: 10.1787/421bf4aa-en
    URL: lizenzpflichtig
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  • 9
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    Should I stay or should I go? : housing and residential mobility across OECD countries (2020)
    Paris, France : OECD
    Details
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 67 Seiten) , Illustrationen
    Serie: OECD Economics Department working papers no. 1626
    Schlagwort(e): Economics ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Graue Literatur
    Kurzfassung: This paper delivers new evidence on the individual and policy drivers of residential mobility, covering a wide range of housing-related policies and conditions but also other relevant policy areas. The analysis uses household-level micro datasets allowing for an investigation of the drivers of the decision to move for a large number of OECD countries; as well for identifying differential policy effects across socio-economic groups, underscoring the distributional effect of policies. The evidence strongly supports the view that housing conditions and structural policies influence people’s decisions and possibilities to move. A more responsive housing supply is associated with higher residential mobility, suggesting that reforming land-use and planning policies may facilitate moving by reducing house price differences across locations. Social cash and in-kind spending on housing are positively correlated with residential mobility. Higher housing transaction costs, including from transfer taxes, are associated with lower residential mobility, especially among younger households, which are more likely to be first time-buyers. Stricter rental regulations are associated with lower residential mobility, particularly for renters, low-educated and low-income households. Beyond housing policies, more generous cash income support to low-wage jobseekers and minimum income schemes embedded in social transfers are positively associated with residential mobility; while excessive job protection on regular contracts is negatively associated with mobility, particularly for youth, low-income and low-educated individuals.
    DOI: 10.1787/d91329c2-en
    URL: lizenzpflichtig
    URL: lizenzpflichtig
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  • 10
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    Housing, wealth accumulation and wealth distribution : evidence and stylized facts (2019)
    Paris, France : OECD
    Details
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 81 Seiten) , Illustrationen
    Serie: OECD Economics Department working papers no. 1588
    Schlagwort(e): Economics ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Graue Literatur
    Kurzfassung: This paper produces new evidence and stylised facts on housing, wealth accumulation and wealth distribution, relying on an in-depth analysis of micro-based data on household wealth across OECD countries. The analysis addresses several questions: i) How is homeownership and housing tenure distributed across the population along various socio-economic characteristics such as income, wealth and age? What is the weight of housing in households’ balance sheets and how does this vary across socio-economic groups? ii) What is the incidence of mortgage debt across households and how does this vary across socio-economic groups? What is the impact of mortgage debt on access to homeownership and wealth accumulation, and on debt overburden and financial risks among vulnerable groups? iii) Is housing a vehicle for wealth accumulation? Can it be a barrier to residential mobility? iv) Is there a link between homeownership and wealth inequality? Between inequality in housing wealth and in total wealth? A key policy issue addressed in this paper is whether and how housing-related policies affect wealth distribution. Another important issue is whether housing-related policies raise potential trade-offs between equity, or inequality reduction, and other policy objectives such as employment and productivity growth as well as macroeconomic resilience. Informed by the stylised facts and existing evidence, this paper discusses preliminary policy implications of housing reform to promote inclusiveness and social mobility, to enhance efficiency in the allocation of labour and capital and to strengthen macroeconomic resilience.
    DOI: 10.1787/86954c10-en
    URL: lizenzpflichtig
    URL: lizenzpflichtig
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  • 11
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    Income redistribution across OECD countries : main findings and policy implications (2018)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 24 Seiten) , Illustrationen
    Serie: OECD economic policy paper no. 23 (September 2018)
    Serie: OECD Economic Policy Papers no.23
    Schlagwort(e): Verteilungspolitik ; Einkommensverteilung ; OECD-Staaten ; Economics ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Graue Literatur
    Kurzfassung: Income inequality has increased in most OECD countries over the past two decades. This is both because market incomes (wages, dividends, interest income) have become more unequally distributed, and also because redistribution through taxes and transfers has fallen. New OECD work explores cross-country evidence on trends in income redistribution since the mid-1990s to shed some light on the main drivers of the general decline.
    DOI: 10.1787/3b63e61c-en
    URL: Volltext  (lizenzpflichtig)
    URL: Volltext  (lizenzpflichtig)
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  • 12
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    An empirical investigation on the drivers of income redistribution across OECD countries (2018)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 85 Seiten) , Illustrationen
    Serie: OECD Economics Department working papers no. 1488
    Schlagwort(e): 1995 - 2015 ; Einkommensverteilung ; Umverteilung ; Steuerprogression ; Öffentliche Sozialleistungen ; OECD-Staaten ; Economics ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Graue Literatur
    Kurzfassung: This paper provides an empirical investigation on the drivers of tax and transfer income redistribution to working-age households across the OECD over the last two decades, in a context where it has been declining in the vast majority of countries. The analytical approach is based on a reduced-form model of income redistribution which is estimated through cross-country-time series regressions. The baseline model builds on the political economy literature of income redistribution and includes a set of non-policy drivers such as labour market and socio-demographic conditions as well as measures of globalisation and technological change. The baseline model is augmented with major direct policy drivers of income redistribution covering tax revenue and social spending as well as a selection of tax and transfer policy parameters. Changes in the size of the tax and transfer systems likely to have contributed to the decline in income redistribution include the decline in social spending on cash support for working-age population and the diminishing role of personal income taxes in reducing inequality under the effect of increasing trade openness. Changes in specific tax and transfer policy instruments and parameters likely to have contributed to the decline in income redistribution include a flattening of the tax schedule in the upper-part of the wage distribution, a decline in the generosity and duration of unemployment-related transfers, including cuts to social assistance, and pension and early retirement reforms to encourage longer working life.
    Anmerkung: Zusammenfassung in französischer Sprache
    DOI: 10.1787/5cb47f33-en
    URL: Volltext  (lizenzpflichtig)
    URL: Volltext  (lizenzpflichtig)
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  • 13
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    Income redistribution through taxes and transfers across OECD countries (2017)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 92 Seiten) , Illustrationen
    Serie: OECD Economics Department working papers no. 1453
    Schlagwort(e): Umverteilung ; Öffentliche Sozialleistungen ; Steuer ; OECD-Staaten ; Economics ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Graue Literatur
    Kurzfassung: This paper produces a comprehensive assessment of income redistribution to the working-age population, covering OECD countries over the last two decades. Redistribution is quantified as the relative reduction in market income inequality achieved by personal income taxes, employees’ social security contributions and cash transfers, based on household-level micro data. A detailed decomposition analysis uncovers the respective roles of size, tax progressivity and transfer targeting for overall redistribution, the respective role of various categories of transfers for transfer redistribution; as well as redistribution for various income groups. The paper shows a widespread decline in redistribution across the OECD, both on average and in the majority of countries for which data going back to the mid-1990s are available. This was primarily associated with a decline in cash transfer redistribution while personal income taxes played a less important and more heterogeneous role across countries. In turn, the decline in the redistributive effect of cash transfers reflected a decline in their size and in particular by less redistributive insurance transfers. In some countries, this was mitigated by more redistributive assistance transfers but the resulting increase in the targeting of total transfers was not sufficient to prevent transfer redistribution from declining.
    Anmerkung: Zusammenfassung in französischer Sprache
    DOI: 10.1787/bc7569c6-en
    URL: Volltext  (lizenzpflichtig)
    URL: Volltext  (lizenzpflichtig)
    URL: lizenzpflichtig
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  • 14
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    Inequality in Denmark through the looking glass (2016)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 51 Seiten) , Illustrationen
    Serie: OECD Economics Department working papers no. 1341
    Schlagwort(e): Einkommensverteilung ; Strukturpolitik ; Wachstumspolitik ; Vergleich ; Dänemark ; OECD-Staaten ; Economics ; Denmark ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Arbeitspapier ; Graue Literatur
    Kurzfassung: This paper delivers a broad assessment of income inequality in Denmark. As a necessary preamble to provide a basis for discussion, we start by contrasting Danish official inequality measures with those gathered by the OECD in an international context. We show that differences between these two sources are fully explained by differences in methodological choices. We then go beyond synthetic measures of inequality to deliver a granular assessment of income distribution and of the distributional impact of taxes and transfers; and on this basis we compare Denmark to other OECD countries. This approach is then used to quantify the distributional impact of some growth-enhancing reforms undertaken or recommended for Denmark, based on empirical evidence across OECD countries. Finally, we take a forward looking stance by discussing global forces shaping the rise in inequality, in particular skill-biased technological change and deliver a tentative scenario for Denmark in the wider OECD context.
    Anmerkung: Zusammenfassung in französischer Sprache
    DOI: 10.1787/5jln041vm6tg-en
    URL: Volltext
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  • 15
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    The distribution of the growth dividends (2016)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 62 Seiten) , Illustrationen
    Serie: OECD Economics Department working papers no. 1343
    Schlagwort(e): Einkommensverteilung ; Wirtschaftswachstum ; Verteilungspolitik ; OECD-Staaten ; Economics ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Arbeitspapier ; Graue Literatur
    Kurzfassung: Widespread increases in inequality over the past three decades have raised the question of the distribution of the growth dividends. This paper finds that there is no single answer to this question. The mechanisms that link growth and income inequality are found to differ depending on the sources of growth and on whether one considers income inequality before or after government redistribution, that is, inequality in market incomes, i.e. income derived before taxes and transfers, or inequality in disposable incomes, that is, income after taxes and transfers. Labour productivity growth is found to have contributed to rising market income inequality, while this was partly mitigated through government redistribution, on average across OECD countries over the last decades. By contrast, employment growth is found to have had an equalising impact, benefiting mostly the households in the lower part of the income distribution. These two forces tended to offset each other and resulted in a broadly distribution-neutral impact of GDP per capita growth, on average across OECD countries over the last three decades. While inequality has risen in many countries, this would tend to suggest that factors other than GDP growth itself have been driving widening income gaps between rich and poor households.
    Anmerkung: Zusammenfassung in französischer Sprache
    DOI: 10.1787/7c8c6cc1-en
    URL: Volltext
    URL: lizenzpflichtig
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  • 16
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    The distributional impact of structural reforms (2016)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: 1 Online-Ressource (circa 61 Seiten) , Illustrationen
    Serie: OECD Economics Department working papers no. 1342
    Schlagwort(e): Einkommensverteilung ; Verteilungspolitik ; OECD-Staaten ; Economics ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Arbeitspapier ; Graue Literatur
    Kurzfassung: In a majority of OECD countries, GDP growth over the past three decades has been associated with growing income disparities. To shed some lights on the potential sources of trade-offs between growth and equity, this paper investigates the long-run impact of structural reforms on household incomes across the distribution, hence on income inequality. The paper builds on a macro-micro approach by combining recent macro-level estimates of the impact of structural reforms on macroeconomic growth with micro-level estimates of the impact of structural reforms on household incomes across the income distribution. It considers the sources of macroeconomic growth, by decomposing growth in GDP per capita into growth in labour utilisation and labour productivity. This allows for shedding light on the mechanisms through which growth and its drivers, including policy drivers, benefit household incomes at different points of the income distribution. Most structural reforms are found to have little impact on income inequality when the latter is assessed through measures that emphasise the middle class. By contrast, a higher number of structural reforms, in particular social protection reforms, are found to have an impact on income inequality and thus may raise tradeoffs and synergies between growth equity objectives when inequality is assessed through measures that emphasise relatively more incomes among the poor. This corresponds to higher degrees of inequality aversion.
    Anmerkung: Zusammenfassung in französischer Sprache
    DOI: 10.1787/5jln041nkpwc-en
    URL: Volltext
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  • 17
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    Can pro-growth policies lift all boats? : An analysis based on household disposable income (2015)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    In:  OECD Journal: Economic Studies Vol. 2015, no. 1, p. 227-268 | volume:2015 | year:2015 | number:1 | pages:227-268
    Details
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: 1 Online-Ressource (42 p.) , 21 x 28cm.
    Titel der Quelle: OECD Journal: Economic Studies
    Angaben zur Quelle: Vol. 2015, no. 1, p. 227-268
    Angaben zur Quelle: volume:2015
    Angaben zur Quelle: year:2015
    Angaben zur Quelle: number:1
    Angaben zur Quelle: pages:227-268
    Schlagwort(e): Economics
    Kurzfassung: In a majority of OECD countries, GDP growth over the past three decades has been associated with growing income disparities. To shed some lights on the potential sources of trade-offs between growth and equity, this paper investigates the long-run impact of structural reforms on GDP per capita and household income distribution. Pro-growth reforms can be distinguished according to whether they are found to generate an increase or a reduction in household disposable income inequality. Those that contribute to reduce inequality include the reduction in regulatory barriers to competition, trade and FDI, as well as the stepping-up in job search assistance and training programmes. Conversely, a tightening of unemployment benefits for the long-term unemployed is found to lift mean household income but to lower income among poorer households, thus raising inequality. Several other reforms have no significant impact on income distribution. JEL Classification: 047, D37, E61 Keywords: Growth, inequality, pro-growth policies
    DOI: 10.1787/eco_studies-2015-5jrqhbb1t5jb
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  • 18
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    Structural reforms and income distribution (2015)
    Paris : OECD
    Details
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: Online-Ressource (34 S.) , graph. Darst.
    Serie: OECD economic policy paper 13
    Serie: OECD Economic Policy Papers no.13
    Schlagwort(e): Strukturpolitik ; Einkommensverteilung ; Vergleich ; Soziale Ungleichheit ; OECD-Staaten ; Economics ; Arbeitspapier ; Graue Literatur
    Kurzfassung: This paper provides new empirical evidence on the effects of structural policies on household disposable incomes at different income levels. More specifically, it investigates the extent to which structural policies have differential long-run impacts on GDP per capita and on household incomes at different points of the distribution. One aim is to verify whether policy decisions may face tradeoffs between objectives of economic efficiency and equity. Many growth enhancing structural reforms are found to deliver stronger income gains for households at the lower end of the distribution compared with the average household, an indication that they may reduce inequality in disposable incomes. Such is the case of reducing regulatory barriers to domestic competition as well as to trade and FDI; stepping-up job-search support and activation programmes. Conversely, other reforms involve trade-offs between the efficiency and equity objective. This is the case of the tightening of unemployment benefits for the long-term unemployed, which is found to lift GDP per capita and average household incomes, but also to reduce disposable incomes at the lower end of the distribution.
    Anmerkung: Zsfassung in franz. Sprache , Systemvoraussetzungen: PDF Reader.
    DOI: 10.1787/5js3777lbxzn-en
    URL: Volltext
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  • 19
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    Economic growth from the household perspective : GDP and income distribution developments across OECD countries (2014)
    Paris : OECD, Economics Dep.
    Details
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: Online-Ressource (83 S.) , graph. Darst.
    Serie: OECD Economics Department working papers 1111
    Schlagwort(e): Mittelschicht ; Einkommensverteilung ; Armut ; Wirtschaftswachstum ; OECD-Staaten ; Economics ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Arbeitspapier ; Graue Literatur
    Kurzfassung: This paper provides an assessment of how households’ income has fared compared with GDP. While the prime focus is on incomes around the median, attention is paid also to the bottom of the income distribution. Thus, one contribution of the paper is to deliver a fresh assessment of the evolution of inequality and poverty across OECD countries over the last fifteen years. The analysis relies on a rich array of indicators, producing new evidence of the various patterns of differences in income distributions across countries and over time. For example, it assesses the extent to which stability in overall income inequality masks compensating changes between the lower and upper halves of the income distribution. Also, it explores whether contracting inequalities coexist with increasing poverty. The paper adds to previous studies by introducing, measuring and analysing income polarisation in a cross-country comparative perspective. Distinguishing polarisation from inequality and comparing their evolution over time provides new policy-relevant perspectives on the nature of the changing income distribution.
    Anmerkung: Zsfassung in franz. Sprache , Systemvoraussetzungen: Acrobat Reader.
    DOI: 10.1787/5jz5m89dh0nt-en
    URL: Volltext
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  • 20
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    Can pro-growth policies lift all boats? : an analysis based on household disposable income (2014)
    Paris : OECD, Economics Dep.
    Details
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: Online-Ressource (50 S.) , graph. Darst.
    Serie: OECD Economics Department working papers 1180
    Schlagwort(e): Wirtschaftswachstum ; Wachstumspolitik ; Einkommensverteilung ; Economics ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Arbeitspapier ; Graue Literatur
    Kurzfassung: In a majority of OECD countries, GDP growth over the past three decades has been associated with growing income disparities. To shed some lights on the potential sources of trade-offs between growth and equity, this paper investigates the long-run impact of structural reforms on GDP per capita and household income distribution. Pro-growth reforms can be distinguished according to whether they are found to generate an increase or a reduction in household disposable income inequality. Those that contribute to reduce inequality include the reduction in regulatory barriers to competition, trade and FDI, as well as the stepping-up in job search assistance and training programmes. Conversely, a tightening of unemployment benefits for the long-term unemployed is found to lift mean household income but to lower income among poorer households, thus raising inequality. Several other reforms have no significant impact on income distribution.
    Anmerkung: Zsfassung in franz. Sprache , Systemvoraussetzungen: PDF Reader.
    DOI: 10.1787/5jxrh8dh5wg7-en
    URL: Volltext
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  • 21
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    The short-term effects of structural reforms : an empirical analysis (2012)
    Paris : OECD
    Details
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: Online-Ressource , graph. Darst.
    Serie: OECD Economics Department working papers 949
    Schlagwort(e): Economics ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Arbeitspapier ; Graue Literatur
    Kurzfassung: Drawing on new empirical analysis of 30 years of structural reforms across the OECD, this paper sheds light on the impact of reforms over time, identifies the horizon over which their full effects materialise, and investigates whether such effects vary with prevailing economic conditions and institutions. Impulse responses of aggregate outcomes (GDP growth, employment rate) to various labour, product market and tax reforms are estimated at different horizons. This analysis indicates that the benefits from reforms typically take time to fully materialise. When significant effects are found in the short run, reforms seldom involve significant aggregate economic losses; on the contrary they often deliver some benefits. The absence of major depressing effects does not lend support to the view that reforms should be in general accompanied by substantial macroeconomic policy easing in order to deliver some short-term gains. Nevertheless, there is also tentative evidence that some labour market reforms (e.g. of unemployment benefit systems and job protection) pay off more quickly in good times than in bad times, and can even entail short-term losses in severely depressed economies.
    Anmerkung: Zsfassung in franz. Sprache , Systemvoraussetzungen: Acrobat Reader.
    DOI: 10.1787/5k9csvk4d56d-en
    URL: Volltext
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  • 22
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    Trade and product market policies in upstream sectors and productivity in downstream sectors : firm-level evidence from China (2012)
    Paris : OECD
    Details
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: Online-Ressource , graph. Darst.
    Serie: OECD Economics Department working papers 990
    Schlagwort(e): Economics ; China, People’s Republic ; Amtsdruckschrift ; Arbeitspapier ; Graue Literatur
    Kurzfassung: This paper explores the productivity impact of trade, product market and financial market policies over the last decade in China – a fast growing country where, despite significant reform action, regulatory stance remains still far from OECD standards. The paper makes a critical distinction between downstream and upstream industries, focusing on the indirect effects of regulation in upstream industries on firm performance in downstream manufacturing industries. This framework allows investigating the link between these policies and productivity growth depending on how far incumbents are relative to the technological frontier. The analysis is novel in several respects. Drawing on new OECD policy indicators of sector-level product market regulation and firm level data, econometric estimates deliver new evidence on the potential gains from product and financial market reforms in China, two policy areas that had not been studied in previous empirical literature. Firm-level microeconomic data further allow shedding light on the differential effects of policies within industries, while also highlighting the potential channels through which productivity is affected by reform. The key conclusion that can be derived from the empirical analysis is that further product, trade and financial market reforms would bring substantial gains in China and could therefore speed up the convergence process. Taken at face value, the empirical estimates would imply that aligning product, trade and financial market regulation to the average level observed in OECD countries would bring aggregate manufacturing productivity gains of respectively 9%, 4% and 6.5% after five years. Trade and product market reforms are found to deliver stronger gains for firms that are closer to the industry-level technological frontier, while the reverse holds for financial market reforms.
    Anmerkung: Zsfassung in franz. Sprache , Systemvoraussetzungen: Acrobat Reader.
    DOI: 10.1787/5k92pgjgll7l-en
    URL: Volltext
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  • 23
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    Equity in Student Achievement Across OECD Countries : An Investigation of the Role of Policies (2010)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    In:  OECD journal: economic studies Vol. 2010, no. 1, p. 1-50
    Details
    ISSN: 1995-2856
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: 50 p
    Titel der Quelle: OECD journal: economic studies
    Publ. der Quelle: Paris : Organisation for Economic Cooperation & Development, 2008
    Angaben zur Quelle: Vol. 2010, no. 1, p. 1-50
    Schlagwort(e): Economics
    Kurzfassung: This paper focuses on inequalities in learning opportunities for individuals coming from different socio-economic backgrounds as a measure of (in)equality of opportunity in OECD countries and provides insights on the potential role played by policies and institutions in shaping countries’ relative positions. Based on harmonised 15-year old students’ achievement data collected at the individual level, the empirical analysis shows that while Nordic European countries exhibit relatively low levels of inequality, continental Europe is characterised by high levels of inequality – in particular of schooling segregation along socio-economic lines – while Anglo-Saxon countries occupy a somewhat intermediate position. Despite the difficulty of properly identifying causal relationship, cross-country regression analysis provides insights on the potential for policies to explain observed differences in equity in education.
    DOI: 10.1787/eco_studies-2010-5km61lb7b39x
    URL: Volltext
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  • 24
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    Migration and labour market outcomes in OECD countries (2010)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    In:  OECD journal: economic studies Vol. 2010, no. 1, p. 1-34
    Details
    ISSN: 1995-2856
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: 34 p
    Titel der Quelle: OECD journal: economic studies
    Publ. der Quelle: Paris : Organisation for Economic Cooperation & Development, 2008
    Angaben zur Quelle: Vol. 2010, no. 1, p. 1-34
    Schlagwort(e): Economics
    Kurzfassung: Immigration pressures are increasing in most OECD countries. This article investigates the consequences of immigration for natives’ labour market outcomes, as well as issues linked to immigrants’ integration in the host country labour market. Changes in the share of immigrants in the labour force may have a distributive impact on natives’ wages, and a temporary impact on unemployment. However, labour market integration of immigrants (as well as integration of second-generation immigrants both in terms of educational attainments and of labour market outcomes) remains the main challenge facing host economies. In both cases, product and labour market policies have a significant role to play in easing the economy’s adjustment to immigration.
    DOI: 10.1787/eco_studies-2010-5kmhf827kws6
    URL: Volltext
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  • 25
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    Intergenerational Social Mobility in OECD Countries (2010)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    In:  OECD journal: economic studies Vol. 2010, no. 1, p. 1-44
    Details
    ISSN: 1995-2856
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: 44 p
    Titel der Quelle: OECD journal: economic studies
    Publ. der Quelle: Paris : Organisation for Economic Cooperation & Development, 2008
    Angaben zur Quelle: Vol. 2010, no. 1, p. 1-44
    Schlagwort(e): Economics
    Kurzfassung: This paper assesses recent patterns of intergenerational social mobility across OECD countries and examines the role that public policies can play. It shows that the relationship between parental or socio-economic background and offspring educational and wage outcomes is positive and significant in practically all countries for which evidence is available. Intergenerational social mobility is measured by several different indicators, since no single indicator provides a complete picture. However, one pattern that emerges is of a group of countries, southern European countries and Luxembourg, which appears to rank as relatively immobile on most indicators, while another group, the Nordic countries, is found to be more mobile. Furthermore, public policies such as education and early childcare play a role in explaining observed differences in intergenerational social mobility across countries.
    DOI: 10.1787/eco_studies-2010-5km33scz5rjj
    URL: Volltext
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  • 26
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    Equity in Student Achievement Across OECD Countries : An Investigation of the Role of Policies (2009)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: 66 p. , 21 x 29.7cm
    Serie: OECD Economics Department Working Papers no.708
    Schlagwort(e): Economics
    Kurzfassung: This paper focuses on inequalities in learning opportunities for individuals coming from different socioeconomic backgrounds as a measure of (in) equality of opportunity in OECD countries and looks at the role played by policies and institutions in shaping countries’ relative positions. Based on harmonised 15- year old students’ achievement data collected at the individual level, the empirical analysis shows that while Nordic European countries exhibit relatively low levels of inequality, continental Europe is characterised by high levels of inequality - in particular of schooling segregation along socio-economic lines - while Anglo-Saxon countries occupy a somewhat intermediate position. Policies allowing increasing social mix are found to reduce school socio-economic segregation without affecting overall performance. Countries that emphasise childcare and pre-school institutions exhibit lower levels of inequality of opportunity, suggesting the effectiveness of early intervention policies in reducing persistence of education outcomes across generations. There is also a positive association between inequality of opportunities and income inequality. As a consequence, cross-country regressions suggest that redistributive policies can help to reduce inequalities of educational opportunities associated with socioeconomic background and, hence, persistence of education outcomes across generations.
    DOI: 10.1787/223056645650
    URL: Volltext
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  • 27
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    The policy determinants of hours worked across OECD countries (2009)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    In:  OECD journal: economic studies Vol. 2009, no. 1, p. 1-39
    Details
    ISSN: 1995-2856
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: 39 p
    Titel der Quelle: OECD journal: economic studies
    Publ. der Quelle: Paris : Organisation for Economic Cooperation & Development, 2008
    Angaben zur Quelle: Vol. 2009, no. 1, p. 1-39
    Schlagwort(e): Economics
    Kurzfassung: This article investigates the policy determinants of hours worked among employed individuals in OECD countries, focussing on the impact of taxation, working-time regulations, and other labour and product market policies. It explores the factors underlying cross-country differences in hours worked — in line with previous aggregate approaches — while at the same time it looks more closely at labour force heterogeneity — in the vein of microeconomic labour supply models. The paper shows that policies and institutions have a different impact on working hours of men and women. Firstly, while high marginal taxes create a disincentive to work longer hours for women, their impact on hours worked by men is almost insignificant. Secondly, working-time regulations have a significant impact on hours worked by men, and this impact differs across education categories. Thirdly, other labour and product market policies, in particular stringent employment protection of workers on regular contracts and competition-restraining product market policies, have a negative impact on hours worked by men, over and beyond their impact on employment levels.
    DOI: 10.1787/eco_studies-v2009-art1-en
    URL: Volltext
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  • 28
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    Intergenerational Social Mobility (2009)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: 71 p. , 21 x 29.7cm
    Serie: OECD Economics Department Working Papers no.707
    Schlagwort(e): Economics
    Kurzfassung: This paper assesses recent patterns in intergenerational social mobility across OECD countries and examines the role that public policies can play in affecting such mobility. It shows that the relationship between parental or socio-economic background and offspring’s educational and wage outcomes is positive and significant in practically all countries for which evidence is available. Intergenerational social mobility is measured by several different indicators since no single indicator provides a complete picture. However, one pattern that emerges is of a group of countries, e.g. southern European countries and Luxembourg, which appears to rank as relatively immobile on most indicators, while another group, e.g. Nordics, is found to be more mobile. Furthermore, public policies such as education and early childcare play a role in explaining observed differences in intergenerational social mobility across countries. In addition, this study also finds a positive cross-country correlation between intergenerational social mobility and redistributive policies.
    DOI: 10.1787/223106258208
    URL: Volltext
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  • 29
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    Intergenerational Social Mobility in European OECD Countries (2009)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: 57 p. , 21 x 29.7cm
    Serie: OECD Economics Department Working Papers no.709
    Schlagwort(e): Economics
    Kurzfassung: This paper breaks new ground by providing comparable estimates of intergenerational wage and education persistence across 14 European OECD countries based on a new micro data from Eurostat. A further novelty is that it examines the potential role of public policies and labour and product market institutions in explaining observed differences in intergenerational wage mobility across countries. The empirical estimates show that intergenerational wage persistence is relatively high in southern European countries, as well as in the United Kingdom. Likewise, intergenerational persistence in education is relatively high both in southern European countries and in Luxembourg and Ireland. By contrast, both persistence in wages and education tends to be lower in Nordic countries. In addition, empirical results show that education is one important driver of intergenerational wage persistence across European countries. There is a positive crosscountry correlation between intergenerational wage mobility and redistributive policies, as well as a positive correlation between wage-setting institutions that compress the wage distribution and mobility.
    DOI: 10.1787/223043801483
    URL: Volltext
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  • 30
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    Explaining Differences in Hours Worked among OECD Countries : An empirical analysis (2008)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: 65 p. , 21 x 29.7cm
    Serie: OECD Economics Department Working Papers no.596
    Schlagwort(e): Economics
    Kurzfassung: This working paper investigates the policy determinants of hours worked among employed individuals in OECD countries, focussing on the impact of taxation, working-time regulations, and other labour and product market policies. It explores the factors underlying cross-country differences in hours worked — in line with previous aggregate approaches — while at the same time it looks more closely at labour force heterogeneity — in the vein of microeconomic labour supply models. The paper shows that policies and institutions have a different impact on working hours of men and women. Firstly, while high marginal taxes create a disincentive to work longer hours for women, their impact on hours worked by men is almost insignificant. Secondly, working-time regulations have a significant impact on hours worked by men, and this impact differs across education categories. Thirdly, other labour and product market policies, in particular stringent employment protection of workers on regular contracts and competition-restraining product market policies, have a negative impact on hours worked by men, over and beyond their impact on employment levels.
    DOI: 10.1787/244230044118
    URL: Volltext
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  • 31
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    Integration of Immigrants in OECD Countries : Do Policies Matter? (2007)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: 34 p. , 21 x 29.7cm
    Serie: OECD Economics Department Working Papers no.564
    Schlagwort(e): Economics
    Kurzfassung: This working paper assesses the ease of immigrants' integration in OECD labour markets by estimating how an immigration background influences the probability of being active or employed and the expected hourly earnings, for given individual characteristics. Applying the same methodology to comparable data across twelve OECD countries, immigrants are shown to significantly lag behind natives in terms of employment and/or wages. The differences narrow as years since settlement elapse, especially as regards wages, reflecting progressive assimilation. Strong differences in immigrant-to-native gaps are also observed across countries, and the paper shows that they may, to a significant extent, be explained by differences in labour market policies, in particular unemployment benefits, the tax wedge and the minimum wage. In addition, immigrants are shown to be overrepresented among outsiders in the labour market and, as such, highly sensitive to the difference in employment protection legislation between temporary and permanent contracts.
    DOI: 10.1787/162367775052
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  • 32
    Online-Ressource
    Online-Ressource
    Migration in OECD countries : Labour Market Impact and Integration Issues (2007)
    Paris : OECD Publishing
    Details
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: 51 p. , 21 x 29.7cm
    Serie: OECD Economics Department Working Papers no.562
    Schlagwort(e): Economics
    Kurzfassung: immigration for natives' labour market outcomes, as well as issues linked to immigrants' integration in the host country labour market. Changes in the share of immigrants in the labour force may have a distributive impact on natives' wages, and a temporary impact on unemployment. However, labour market integration of immigrants (as well as integration of second-generation immigrants - both in terms of educational attainments and of labour market outcomes) remains the main challenge facing host economies. In both cases, product and labour market policies have a significant role to play in easing the economy's adjustment to immigration.
    DOI: 10.1787/164604735126
    URL: Volltext
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  • 33
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    Online-Ressource
    L' échelle de la compétitivité : Comment la gravir (2006)
    Paris : OECD Publishing and OECD Development Centre
    Details
    ISBN: 9789264028296
    Sprache: Französisch
    Seiten: Online-Ressource (157 p.)
    Serie: Études du Centre de Développement
    Serie: Études du Centre de développement
    Paralleltitel: Druckausg.
    Paralleltitel: Parallelausg. The Ladder of Competitiveness; How to Climb it
    Paralleltitel: Parallelausg. The Ladder of Competitiveness: How to Climb it
    Schlagwort(e): Development ; Economics ; Industrie ; Wettbewerbsfähigkeit ; Produktivität ; Außenhandel
    Kurzfassung: Les palmarès de la compétitivité nationale permettent de définir un classement, avec des possibilités de comparaisons immédiates, des gagnants et des perdants de la compétition économique mondiale.Cependant, ils laissent un certain nombre de questions sans réponse. S’appuyant sur des données empiriques émanant de plus de 50 pays, cet ouvrage montre que même de petites différences concernant un certain nombre de facteurs peuvent concourir à stimuler ou au contraire bloquer la productivité. Les pouvoirs publics ont besoin de telles informations pour fixer des priorités. Les investisseurs en ont aussi besoin, et deux nouveaux classements sont proposés à titre d’alternatives à une simple comparaison de la productivité industrielle. Le premier, intitulé le « classement investisseur », repose sur les infrastructures, le capital humain et la productivité totale des facteurs. Le second, le « classement exportateur », est destiné aux investisseurs dont la préoccupation première est de trouver une plate-forme de production bien intégrée dans le commerce mondial. Si l’on associe ces nouveaux classements à un troisième, plus traditionnel, on obtient trois groupes de pays qualifiés d’équilibrés, à fort potentiel et vulnérables. La composition des groupes réserve cependant quelques surprises : en effet, on peut être riche, mais cela ne signifie pas pour autant qu’on n’est pas vulnérable.
    DOI: 10.1787/9789264028296-fr
    URL: Volltext
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  • 34
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    Online-Ressource
    The Ladder of Competitiveness : How to Climb it (2006)
    Paris : OECD Publishing and OECD Development Centre
    Details
    ISBN: 9789264028272
    Sprache: Englisch
    Seiten: Online-Ressource (137 p.)
    Serie: Development Centre Studies
    Paralleltitel: Druckausg.
    Paralleltitel: Parallelausg. L'échelle de la compétitivité ; Comment la gravir
    Paralleltitel: Parallelausg. L'échelle de la compétitivité : Comment la gravir
    Paralleltitel: Erscheint auch als Causa, Orsetta The ladder of competitiveness
    RVK:
    QC 340
    RVK:
    QM 200
    Schlagwort(e): Produktivität ; Internationaler Wettbewerb ; Welt ; Competition ; Industrial productivity ; Development ; Economics ; Wirtschaftsentwicklung ; Produktionsstruktur ; Produktionsfaktor ; Wettbewerbsfähigkeit
    Kurzfassung: Tables of national competitiveness give an easily comparable ranking of the winners and losers of global economic competition. But they don't explain why the “poor” countries are four times less productive than the “rich” ones or why some rich countries are twice as productive as others. Using empirical data from over 50 countries, this book shows how even small differences in a number of factors combine to boost or block productivity. Governments need such information to set priorities. Investors need it too, and two new rankings are proposed as alternatives to a simple comparison of industrial productivity. The first, called the “investor ranking”, is based on infrastructure, human capital and total factor productivity. The second, “exporter ranking”, is for investors whose prime concern is for a production platform well-integrated into world trade. Combining the new rankings with a more traditional one produces three groups of countries, termed balanced, high potential, and vulnerable. Group membership reserves some surprises: you may be rich, but that doesn’t mean you’re not vulnerable.
    DOI: 10.1787/9789264028272-en
    URL: Volltext
    URL: lizenzpflichtig
    Bibliothek Standort Signatur Band/Heft/Jahr Verfügbarkeit
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