Element contents
Which Lives Matter?
Factors Shaping Public Attention to and Protest of Officer-Involved Killings
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 11 September 2023
Summary
This Element explores the factors that lead the public to pay attention to and mobilize in support of victims of officer-involved killings. The author argues that race is the most important factor shaping both attention and mobilization. Black victims are statistically significantly more likely to trend on Google and get protested than victims of other races. Deaths of low threat Black victims are more likely to affect political interest, voter turnout, and protest rates, and only among young Black observers. This Element attributes this pattern to the fact that mobilization around officer-involved killings is responding to anti-Black discrimination, rather than general sentiments about police violence. It also finds that the local density of social justice organizations increases political mobilization.
- Type
- Element
- Information
- Online ISBN: 9781108982870Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication: 05 October 2023
References
1995. “Positional Asphyxia – Sudden Death,” edited by National Law Enforcement Technology Center. Department of Justice. Accessed June 27, 2023 at www.ojp.gov/library/publications/positional-asphyxia-sudden-death.Google Scholar
2017a. “Investigation of the Chicago Police Department.” United States Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division, and United States Attorney’s Office, Northern District of Illinois. Accessed June 27, 2023 at www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwiOleSbnLL_AhVFFFkFHSv9BtkQFnoECBwQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.justice.gov%2Fopa%2Ffile%2F925846%2Fdownload&usg=AOvVaw3VOSZzJUhO_vC8Yz7x0u_-.Google Scholar
2017b. “Sentencing Pushed Back for Meriden Teen Charged in Fatal August 2016 Crash.” August 10. Accessed June 27, 2023 at www.myrecordjournal.com/Archive/2017/08/MerSentenceDelayed-RJ-081017.Google Scholar
2019a. “Facts about Occupy Wall Street.” Accessed February 8, 2021 at http://occupywallst.org/.Google Scholar
2019b. “More Than 80 Arrested during Sacramento Police Shooting Protest.” Al Jazeera, March 5, 2019. Accessed February 18, 2021 at www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/3/5/more-than-80-arrested-during-sacramento-police-shooting-protest.Google Scholar
2020. The Dream Defenders et al. v. Desantis. United States District Court, Northern District of Florida.Google Scholar
2021a. “About Black Lives Matter.” Accessed February 8, 2021 at https://blacklivesmatter.com/about/.Google Scholar
2021b. “Charlamagne and Envy Debate over Lawfulness of Ma’Khia Bryant Shooting by Police.” Accessed June 27, 2023 at https://youtu.be/CXAsKxg8cO8.Google Scholar
2021c. “Fatal Force.” The Washington Post. Accessed February 8, 2021 at www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/investigations/police-shootings-database/.Google Scholar
2021d. “#SayHerName.” The African American Policy Forum. Accessed June 24, 2021 at www.aapf.org/sayhername.Google Scholar
ACLED. 2020. “Demonstrations & Political Violence in America: New Data for Summer 2020.” Accessed June 27, 2023 at https://acleddata.com/2020/09/03/demonstrations-political-violence-in-america-new-data-for-summer-2020/.Google Scholar
Aldrich, John H. 1993. “Rational Choice and Turnout.” American Journal of Political Science 37 (1):246–278.Google Scholar
Appiah, Osei, Knobloch-Westerwick, Silvia, and Alter, Scott. 2013. “Ingroup Favoritism and Outgroup Derogation: Effects of News Valence, Character Race, and Recipient Race on Selective News Reading.” Journal of Communication 63 (3):517–534.Google Scholar
Aust, Charles F, and Zillmann, Dolf. 1996. “Effects of Victim Exemplification in Television News on Viewer Perception of Social Issues.” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 73 (4):787–803.Google Scholar
Baker, Mike. 2020. “One Person Dead in Portland after Clashes between Trump Supporters and Protesters.” The New York Times. Accessed December 13, 2021 at www.nytimes.com/2020/08/30/us/portland-trump-rally-shooting.html.Google Scholar
Barreto, Matt A, Manzano, Sylvia, Ramirez, Ricardo, and Rim, Kathy. 2009. “Mobilization, Participation, and Solidaridad Latino Participation in the 2006 Immigration Protest Rallies.” Urban Affairs Review 44 (5):736–764.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bennett, W Lance, and Segerberg, Alexandra. 2012. “The Logic of Connective Action: Digital Media and the Personalization of Contentious Politics.” Information, Communication & Society 15 (5):739–768.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bergesen, Albert. 1982. “Race Riots of 1967: An Analysis of Police Violence in Detroit and Newark.” Journal of Black Studies 12 (3):261–274.Google Scholar
Beydoun, Khaled A, and Hansford, Justin. 2017. “The F.B.I.’s Dangerous Crackdown on ‘Black Identity Extremists’.” The New York Times, November 15, 2017, Opinion. Accessed April 16, 2018 at www.nytimes.com/2017/11/15/opinion/black-identity-extremism-fbi-trump.html.Google Scholar
Birck, Morgan A. 2018. “Do You See What I See: Problems with Juror Bias in Viewing Body-Camera Video Evidence Note.” Michigan Journal of Race & Law 24 (1):[i]–176.Google Scholar
Bobo, Lawrence D, and Johnson, Devon. 2004. “A Taste for Punishment: Black and White Americans’ Views on the Death Penalty and the War on Drugs.” Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race 1 (01):151–180. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1742058X04040081.Google Scholar
Boyle, Michael P, Schmierbach, Mike, Armstrong, Cory L, et al. 2004. “Information Seeking and Emotional Reactions to the September 11 Terrorist Attacks.” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 81 (1):155–167.Google Scholar
Braga, Anthony A, Winship, Christopher, Tyler, Tom R, Fagan, Jeffrey, and Meares, Tracey L. 2014. “The Salience of Social Contextual Factors in Appraisals of Police Interactions with Citizens: a Randomized Factorial Experiment.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 30 (4):599–627.Google Scholar
Buchanan, Larry, Bui, Quoctrung, and Patel, Jugal K. 2020. “Black Lives Matter May Be the Largest Movement in U.S. History.” The New York Times, July 3, 2020. www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/07/03/us/george-floyd-protests-crowd-size.html.Google Scholar
Bunyasi, Tehama L, and W Smith, Candis. 2019. “Do All Black Lives Matter Equally to Black People? Respectability Politics and the Limitations of Linked Fate.” Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics 4 (1):180–215.Google Scholar
Burch, Traci. 2022a. “Adding Insult to Injury: the Justification Frame in Official Narratives of Officer-Involved Killings.” Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics 7 (3):359–384.Google Scholar
Burch, Traci. 2022b. “Not All Black Lives Matter: Officer-Involved Deaths and the Role of Victim Characteristics in Shaping Political Interest and Voter Turnout.” Perspectives on Politics 20 (4):1174–1190.Google Scholar
Burch, Traci. 2023. “Officer-Involved Killings and the Repression of Protest.” Urban Affairs Review 59 (2):580–610.Google Scholar
Cammaerts, Bart. 2012. “Protest Logics and the Mediation Opportunity Structure.” European Journal of Communication 27 (2):117–134. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323112441007.Google Scholar
Dennis, Chong, and Druckman, James N. 2007. “Framing Theory.” Annual Review of Political Science 10 (1):103–126. doi: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.10.072805.103054.Google Scholar
Cineas, Fabiola. 2021. “Why They’re Not Saying Ma’Khia Bryant’s Name.” Vox, May 1, 2021. Accessed June 24, 2021 at www.vox.com/22406055/makhia-bryant-police-shooting-columbus-ohio.Google Scholar
Coan, Travis G, Merolla, Jennifer L, Zechmeister, Elizabeth J, and Zizumbo-Colunga, Daniel. 2020. “Emotional Responses Shape the Substance of Information Seeking under Conditions of Threat.” Political Research Quarterly 74 (4): 941–954. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912920949320.Google Scholar
Cobb, Jelani. 2016. The Matter of Black Lives. The New Yorker. March 6, 2016. available online: https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/03/14/where-is-black-lives-matter-headedGoogle Scholar
Cohen, Cathy J. 2009. The Boundaries of Blackness: AIDS and the Breakdown of Black Politics. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Cohen, Elisha, Gunderson, Anna, Jackson, Kaylyn, et al. 2019. “Do Officer-Involved Shootings Reduce Citizen Contact with Government?” The Journal of Politics 81 (3):1111–1123. doi: https://doi.org/10.1086/703539.Google Scholar
Conn, Jordan Ritter. 2020. “‘She Loved Who She Was Becoming’: Breonna Taylor and a Family’s Fight for Justice.” The Ringer, June 18, 2020. www.theringer.com/2020/6/18/21294510/breonna-taylor-louisville-police-black-lives-matter-protests.Google Scholar
Culhane, Scott E, Boman, John H, and Schweitzer, Kimberly. 2016. “Public Perceptions of the Justifiability of Police Shootings: the Role of Body Cameras in a Pre- and Post-Ferguson Experiment.” Police Quarterly 19 (3):251–274. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611116651403.Google Scholar
Cullen, Francis T, Cao, Liqun, Frank, James, et al. 1996. ““Stop or I’ll Shoot”: Racial Differences in Support for Police Use of Deadly Force.” American Behavioral Scientist 39 (4):449–460. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764296039004008.Google Scholar
Dave, Dhaval M, Friedson, Andrew I, Matsuzawa, Kyutaro, Sabia, Joseph J, and Safford, Samuel. 2020. Black Lives Matter Protests and Risk Avoidance: the Case of Civil Unrest during a Pandemic. National Bureau of Economic Research.Google Scholar
Davenport, Christian. 2005. “Understanding Covert Repressive Action: the Case of the US Government against the Republic of New Africa.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 49 (1):120–140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davenport, Christian. 2009. “Regimes, Repertoires and State Repression.” Swiss Political Science Review 15 (2):377–385.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davenport, Christian, Soule, Sarah A, and Armstrong, David A. 2011. “Protesting While Black? The Differential Policing of American Activism, 1960 to 1990.” American Sociological Review 76 (1):152–178.Google Scholar
Dawson, Michael C. 1995. Behind the Mule: Race and Class in African-American Politics. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Dukes, Kristin Nicole, and Gaither, Sarah E. 2017. “Black Racial Stereotypes and Victim Blaming: Implications for Media Coverage and Criminal Proceedings in Cases of Police Violence against Racial and Ethnic Minorities.” Journal of Social Issues 73 (4):789–807.Google Scholar
Earl, Jennifer. 2005. “‘You Can Beat the Rap, But You Can’t Beat the Ride’: Bringing Arrests Back into Research on Repression.” In Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change (Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, Vol. 26). Emerald Group Publishing Limited, Bingley, pp. 101–139. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0163-786X(05)26004-4.Google Scholar
Earl, Jennifer. 2011. “Political Repression: Iron Fists, Velvet Gloves, and Diffuse Control.” Annual Review of Sociology 37 (1):261–284. doi: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.012809.102609.Google Scholar
Jennifer, Earl, Martin, Andrew, McCarthy, John D., and Soule, Sarah A.. 2004. “The Use of Newspaper Data in the Study of Collective Action.” Annual Review of Sociology 30 (1):65–80. doi: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.30.012703.110603.Google Scholar
Edwards, Bob, and McCarthy, John D. 2004. “Resources and Social Movement Mobilization.” The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements 11:152–156.Google Scholar
Frank, Edwards, Esposito, Michael H, and Lee, Hedwig. 2018. “Risk of Police-Involved Death by Race/Ethnicity and Place, United States, 2012–2018.” American Journal of Public Health 108 (9):1241–1248. doi: https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2018.304559.Google Scholar
Epp, Charles R, Maynard-Moody, Steven, and Haider-Markel, Donald. 2014. Pulled Over: How Police Stops Define Race and Citizenship. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Esquivel, Paloma. 2016. “Shooting of Unarmed White Teenager Has Racially Diverse Fresno Trying to Make Sense of Black Lives Matter.” Los Angeles Times, July 21, 2016. Accessed February 8, 2021 at www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-fresno-shooting-20160721-snap-story.html.Google Scholar
Fatal, Encounters. 2023. “Our Visualizations.” Accessed March 13, 2023 at https://fatalencounters.org/our-visualizations/.Google Scholar
Felstiner, William L F, Abel, Richard L, and Sarat, Austin. 1980. “The Emergence and Transformation of Disputes: Naming, Blaming, Claiming.” Law and Society Review 15 (3/4):631–654.Google Scholar
Fisher, Dana R, Dow, Dawn M, and Ray, Rashawn. 2017. “Intersectionality Takes It to the Streets: Mobilizing across Diverse Interests for the Women’s March.” Science Advances 3 (9):eaao1390.Google Scholar
Flanders, Chad, and Welling, Joseph. 2015. “Police Use of Deadly Force: State Statutes 30 Years After Garner.” Saint Louis University Law Journal 35:109.Google Scholar
Forliti, Amy. 2019. “Activists: Cop’s Shooting of White Woman Treated Differently.” Seattle Times, April 13, 2019. https://www.seattletimes.com/nation-world/nation/activists-cops-shooting-of-white-woman-treated-differently/.Google Scholar
Gelman, Andrew, Fagan, Jeffrey, and Kiss, Alex. 2007. “An Analysis of the New York City Police Department’s ‘Stop-and-Frisk’ Policy in the Context of Claims of Racial Bias.” Journal of the American Statistical Association 102 (479):813–823.Google Scholar
Glasford, Demis E. 2013. “Seeing Is Believing: Communication Modality, Anger, and Support for Action on Behalf of Out‐Groups.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 43 (11):2223–2230.Google Scholar
Goldenberg, Jamie L, Pyszczynski, Tom, Johnson, Kern D., Greenberg, Jeff, and Solomon, Sheldon. 1999. “The Appeal of Tragedy: a Terror Management Perspective.” Media Psychology 1 (4):313–329. doi: https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532785xmep0104_2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gorner, Jeremy, and Pratt, Gregory. 2019. “Have You Spoken at a Chicago Police Board Meeting? The Police Know More about You Than You Realize.” Chicago Tribune, July 24, 2019.Google Scholar
Greene, Kathryn, and Krcmar, Marina. 2005. “Predicting Exposure to and Liking of Media Violence: a Uses and Gratifications Approach.” Communication Studies 56 (1):71–93. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/0008957042000332250.Google Scholar
Hacker, Jacob S, and Pierson, Paul. 2005. “Abandoning the Middle: the Bush Tax Cuts and the Limits of Democratic Control.” Perspectives on Politics 3 (1):33–53. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592705050048.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hansen, John Mark. 1985. “The Political Economy of Group Membership.” American Political Science Review 79 (1):79–96.Google Scholar
Harcourt, Bernard E. 2015. “Cover-Up in Chicago.” The New York Times, November 30, 2015, Opinion.Google Scholar
Heinecke, Jeannine. 2007. “‘Knock, Knock.’‘Who’s There?’” Law Enforcement Technology 34 (2):30–32.Google Scholar
Higginbotham, Evelyn Brooks. 1992. “African-American Women’s History and the Metalanguage of Race.” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 17 (2):251–274.Google Scholar
Hill, Evan, Tiefenthäler, Ainara, Triebert, Christiaan et al. 2020. “How George Floyd Was Killed in Police Custody.” The New York Times, May 31, 2020. www.nytimes.com/2020/05/31/us/george-floyd-investigation.html.Google Scholar
Hoffner, Cynthia A., Fujioka, Yuki, Jiali, Ye, and Ibrahim, Amal G. S.. 2009. “Why We Watch: Factors Affecting Exposure to Tragic Television News.” Mass Communication and Society 12 (2):193–216. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/15205430802095042.Google Scholar
Hollander, Jocelyn A. 2001. “Vulnerability and Dangerousness: the Construction of Gender through Conversation about Violence.” Gender & Society 15 (1):83–109.Google Scholar
Huff, Jessica, Alvarez, Mauricio J, and Miller, Monica K. 2018. “Mock Juror Perceptions of Police Shootings: the Effects of Victim Race and Shooting Justifiability.” Applied Psychology in Criminal Justice 14 (2):87–101.Google Scholar
Hunt, Kate, and Gruszczynski, Mike. 2019. “The Influence of New and Traditional Media Coverage on Public Attention to Social Movements: the Case of the Dakota Access Pipeline Protests.” Information, Communication & Society 24 (7):1024–1040. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2019.1670228.Google Scholar
Hurwitz, Jon, and Peffley, Mark. 2001. “Racial Polarization on Criminal Justice Issues: Sources and Political Consequences of Fairness Judgments.” Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, CA.Google Scholar
Hurwitz, Jon, and Peffley, Mark. 2005. “Explaining the Great Racial Divide: Perceptions of Fairness in the US Criminal Justice System.” The Journal of Politics 67 (3):762–783.Google Scholar
Jefferis, Eric, Butcher, Fredrick, and Hanley, Dena. 2011. “Measuring Perceptions of Police Use of Force.” Police Practice and Research: an International Journal 12 (1):81–96.Google Scholar
Johnson, Devon. 2008. “Racial Prejudice, Perceived Injustice, and the Black-White Gap in Punitive Attitudes.” Journal of Criminal Justice 36:198–206.Google Scholar
Devon, Johnson, and Kuhns, Joseph B. 2009. “Striking Out: Race and Support for Police Use of Force.” Justice Quarterly 26 (3):592–623. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/07418820802427825.Google Scholar
Jones, Jeffrey M. 2020. “Black, White Adults’ Confidence Diverges Most on Police.” Gallup. Accessed December 21, 2021 at https://news.gallup.com/poll/317114/black-white-adults-confidence-diverges-police.aspx.Google Scholar
Kahan, Dan M, Hoffman, David A, and Braman, Donald. 2009. “Whose Eyes Are You Going to Believe? Scott v. Harris and the Perils of Cognitive Illiberalism.” Harvard Law Review 122 (3):837–906.Google Scholar
Kaye, Barbara K, and Johnson, Thomas J. 2002. “Online and in the Know: Uses and Gratifications of the Web for Political Information.” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 46 (1):54–71. doi: https://doi.org/10.1207/s15506878jobem4601_4.Google Scholar
Otto, Kerner, and Lindsay, John V. 1968. Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders. Washington, DC: National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, United States.Google Scholar
King, Gary, Tomz, Michael, and Wittenberg, Jason. 2000. “Making the Most of Statistical Analyses: Improving Interpretation and Presentation.” American Journal of Political Science 44 (2):314–355.Google Scholar
Klandermans, Bert, and Oegema, Dirk. 1987. “Potentials, Networks, Motivations, and Barriers: Steps towards Participation in Social Movements.” American Sociological Review 52 (1987):519–531.Google Scholar
Knobloch-Westerwick, Silvia, Appiah, Osei, and Alter, Scott. 2008. “News Selection Patterns as a Function of Race: the Discerning Minority and the Indiscriminating Majority.” Media Psychology 11 (3):400–417. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/15213260802178542.Google Scholar
Knobloch-Westerwick, Silvia, and Hastall, Matthias R. 2006. “Social Comparisons with News Personae: Selective Exposure to News Portrayals of Same-Sex and Same-Age Characters.” Communication Research 33 (4):262–284.Google Scholar
Knobloch-Westerwick, Silvia, and Hastall, Matthias R. 2010. “Please Your Self: Social Identity Effects on Selective Exposure to News about In- and Out-Groups.” Journal of Communication 60 (3):515–535.Google Scholar
Kubey, Robert W, and Peluso, Thea. 1990. “Emotional Response as a Cause of Interpersonal News Diffusion: the Case of the Space Shuttle Tragedy.” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 34 (1990), 69–76.Google Scholar
Lalwani, Nikita, and Johnston, Mitchell. 2020. “What Happens When a Police Officer Gets Fired? Very Often Another Police Agency Hires Them.” The Washington Post, June 16, 2020. Accessed February 8, 2021 at www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2020/06/16/what-happens-when-police-officer-gets-fired-very-often-another-police-agency-hires-them/.Google Scholar
Laniyonu, Ayobami. 2019. “The Political Consequences of Policing: Evidence from New York City.” Political Behavior 41 (2):527–558. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-018-9461-9.Google Scholar
Lee, ByungGu, Kim, Jinha, and Scheufele, Dietram A.. 2016. “Agenda Setting in the Internet Age: the Reciprocity between Online Searches and Issue Salience.” International Journal of Public Opinion Research 28 (3):440–455. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edv026.Google Scholar
Legewie, Joscha, and Fagan, Jeffrey. 2016. “Group Threat, Police Officer Diversity and the Deadly Use of Police Force.” Columbia Public Law Research Paper (14-512). Accessed June 27, 2023 at https://scholarship.law.columbia.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi&article=2981&context=faculty_scholarship.Google Scholar
Lemongello, Steven, and Rohrer, Gray. 2021. “DeSantis Signs ‘Anti-Riot’ Bill Into Law, Sparking Outcry from Democrats, Civil Rights Groups.” Orlando Sentinel, April 19, 2021. Accessed December 9, 2021 at www.orlandosentinel.com/politics/os-ne-desantis-signs-anti-riot-bill-20210419-iltp27x5mzcbheeqvyhclhz2xq-story.html.Google Scholar
Stanley, Lieberson, and Silverman, Arnold R.. 1965. “The Precipitants and Underlying Conditions of Race Riots.” American Sociological Review 30 (6):887–898. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/2090967.Google Scholar
Litman, Jordan. 2005. “Curiosity and the Pleasures of Learning: Wanting and Liking New Information.” Cognition and Emotion 19 (6):793–814. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930541000101.Google Scholar
Lopez, Ashley. 2022. “Turnout among Young Voters Was the Second Highest for a Midterm in Past 30 Years.” NPR, November 10, 2022. Accessed March 13, 2023 at www.npr.org/2022/11/10/1135810302/turnout-among-young-voters-was-the-second-highest-for-a-midterm-in-past-30-years.Google Scholar
Lowery, Wesley. 2018. “Police Are Still Killing Black People. Why Isn’t It News Anymore?” The Washington Post, March 16, 2018. Accessed April 17, 2018 at www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/police-are-still-killing-black-people-why-isnt-it-news-anymore/2018/03/12/df004124-22ef-11e8-badd-7c9f29a55815_story.html?utm_term=.611d836e6db2.Google Scholar
Lundman, Richard J, and Kaufman, Robert L. 2003. “Driving While Black: Effects of Race, Ethnicity, and Gender on Citizen Self-Reports of Traffic Stops.” Criminology 41 (1):195–220.Google Scholar
Lupia, Arthur, and Tasha S. Philpot. “Views from inside the net: How websites affect young adults’ political interest.” The Journal of Politics 67.4 (2005): 1122–1142.Google Scholar
Massie, Victoria M. 2016. “Native Americans Like Renee Davis Are Ignored When Police Brutality is Viewed as Black and White.” Accessed February 5, 2020 at www.vox.com/identities/2016/10/25/13403290/renee-davis-police-violence-native-american.Google Scholar
Matthes, Jörg, and Schemer, Christian. 2012. “Diachronic Framing Effects in Competitive Opinion Environments.” Political Communication 29 (3):319–339.Google Scholar
McAdam, Doug. 1982. Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency 1930–1970. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
McIvor, David W. 2012. “Bringing Ourselves to Grief: Judith Butler and the Politics of Mourning.” Political Theory 40 (4):409–436. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0090591712444841.Google Scholar
McNamara, Audrey. 2020. “Thousands Gather for 2020 March on Washington.” CBS News, August 28, 2020. www.cbsnews.com/news/march-on-washington-dc-mlk-racial-equality-watch-live-stream-today-2020-08-28/.Google Scholar
Meares, Tracey L., Tyler, Tom R., and Gardener, Jacob. 2015. “Lawful or Fair? How Cops and Laypeople Perceive Good Policing.” The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology (1973–) 105 (2):297–343.Google Scholar
Mettler, Suzanne, and Koch, Julianna. 2012. “Who Says They Have Ever Used a Government Social Program? The Role of Policy Visibility.” The Journalist’s Resource. Accessed June 27, 2023 at www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwiujPG-5tr_AhXREGIAHak6B1UQFnoECAoQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fjournalistsresource.org%2Fwp-content%252Fuploads%252F2012%252F09%252FPerceptionGovt-KochMettler-022812.pdf&usg=AOvVaw3im-Ck9GT8l6J5EjOVhreQ&opi=89978449.Google Scholar
Meyer, David S. 2004. “Protest and Political Opportunities.” Annual Review of Sociology 30:125–145.Google Scholar
Michener, Jamila. 2019. “Policy Feedback in a Racialized Polity.” Policy Studies Journal 47 (2):423–450.Google Scholar
Miller, Joanne M., and Jon A. Krosnick. “Threat as a motivator of political activism: A field experiment.” Political Psychology 25.4 (2004): 507–523.Google Scholar
Mogelson, Luke. 2020. “In the Streets with Antifa.” The New Yorker, October 25, 2020. www.newyorker.com/magazine/2020/11/02/trump-antifa-movement-portland.Google Scholar
Morris, Aldon. 2017. “The Future of Black Politics: Substance versus Process and Formality.” In Ethnic Politics and Civil Liberties, 168–174. Routledge.Google Scholar
Mourtgos, Scott M, and Adams, Ian T. 2020. “Assessing Public Perceptions of Police Use-of-Force: Legal Reasonableness and Community Standards.” Justice Quarterly 37 (5):869–899.Google Scholar
Mullinix, Kevin J, Bolsen, Toby, and Norris, Robert J. 2020. “The Feedback Effects of Controversial Police Use of Force.” Political Behavior 43 (2): 1–18.Google Scholar
Murray, Stephanie. 2021. “6 Cities Where Police Reform is Shaping the Race for Mayor.” Politico, March 17, 2021.Google Scholar
Yu-Leung, Ng, and Zhao, Xinshu. 2018. “The Human Alarm System for Sensational News, Online News Headlines, and Associated Generic Digital Footprints: a Uses and Gratifications Approach.” Communication Research 47 (2):251–275. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650218793739.Google Scholar
Nuamah, Sally A. 2021. “The Cost of Participating While Poor and Black: toward a Theory of Collective Participatory Debt.” Perspectives on Politics 19 (4):1115–1130. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592720003576.Google Scholar
O’Brien, Anthony J., and Thom, Katey. 2014. “Police Use of TASER Devices in Mental Health Emergencies: a Review.” International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 37 (4):420–426. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2014.02.014.Google Scholar
Okoren, Nicolle. 2020. “The Birth of a Militia: How an Armed Group Policies Black Lives Matter Protests.” The Guardian. Accessed December 9, 2021 at www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/jul/27/utah-militia-armed-group-police-black-lives-matter-protests.Google Scholar
Olson, Mancur. 1965. The Logic of Collective Action. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Orenstein, Walker and Callaghan, Peter. 2020. “The Legislature Just Passed a Police Reform Bill. What it Does – and Doesn’t Do – To Reshape Law Enforcement in Minnesota.” MinnPost, July 21, 2020. www.minnpost.com/state-government/2020/07/the-legislature-just-passed-a-police-reform-bill-what-it-does-and-doesnt-do-to-reshape-law-enforcement-in-minnesota/.Google Scholar
Owens, Michael Leo, and Walker, Hannah L.. 2018. “The Civic Voluntarism of ‘Custodial Citizens’: Involuntary Criminal Justice Contact, Associational Live, and Political Participation.” Perspectives on Politics 16 (4):990–1013.Google Scholar
Zizi, Papacharissi, and Rubin, Alan M.. 2000. “Predictors of Internet Use.” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 44 (2):175–196. doi:https://doi.org/10.1207/s15506878jobem4402_2.Google Scholar
Pasquier, Mathieu, Carron, Pierre-Nicolas, Vallotton, Laurent, and Yersin, Bertrand. 2011. “Electronic Control Device Exposure: a Review of Morbidity and Mortality.” Annals of Emergency Medicine 58 (2):178–188. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annemergmed.2011.01.023.Google Scholar
Patterson, Chase. 2014. “Don’t Forget to Knock: Eliminating the Tension between Indiana’s Self Defense Statute and No-Knock Warrants.” Indiana Law Review 47 (2):621–643.Google Scholar
Pearl, Mike. 2015. “Why Are Some People Saying Dylann Roof Was Given Special Treatment When He Was Arrested?” Vice. www.vice.com/en_us/article/4wbnzd/why-are-some-people-saying-dylann-roof-was-given-special-treatment-when-he-was-arrested-623.Google Scholar
Peffley, Mark, and Hurwitz, Jon. 2002. “The Racial Components of ‘Race-Neutral’ Crime Policy Attitudes.” Political Psychology 23 (1):59–75.Google Scholar
Peffley, Mark, and Hurwitz, Jon. 2010. Justice in America: the Separate Realities of Blacks and Whites, Cambridge Studies in Public Opinion and Political Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Peffley, Mark, Hurwitz, Jon, and Mondak, Jeffery. 2017. “Racial Attributions in the Justice System and Support for Punitive Crime Policies.” American Politics Research 45 (6):1032–1058.Google Scholar
Perkins, James E., and Bourgeois, Martin J.. 2006. “Perceptions of Police Use of Deadly Force.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 36 (1):161–177. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0021-9029.2006.00056.x.Google Scholar
Pica, Emily, Sheahan, Chelsea L, Pozzulo, Joanna, and Bennell, Craig. 2020. “Guns, Gloves, and Tasers: Perceptions of Police Officers and Their Use of Weapon as a Function of Race and Gender.” Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology 35 (1):1–12.Google Scholar
Pierson, Emma, Simoiu, Camelia, Overgoor, Jan et al. 2020. “A Large-Scale Analysis of Racial Disparities in Police Stops across the United States.” Nature Human Behaviour 4 (7):736–745.Google Scholar
Pierson, Paul. 1993. “When Effect Becomes Cause: Policy Feedback and Political Change.” World Politics 45 (4):595–628.Google Scholar
Polletta, Francesca, and Mkai, Ho. 2006. “Frames and Their Consequences.” In Goodin, Robert E. and Tilly, Charles (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Contextual Political Analysis, pp. 187–209. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Rafail, Patrick, Soule, Sarah A, and McCarthy, John D. 2012. “Describing and Accounting for the Trends in US Protest Policing, 1960−1995.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 56 (4):736–765.Google Scholar
Ransby, Barbara. 2015. “Ella Baker’s Radical Democratic Vision.” Jacobin, June 18, 2015. Accessed June 27, 2023 at https://jacobin.com/2015/06/black-lives-matter-police-brutality/.Google Scholar
Ransby, Barbara. 2018. Making All Black Lives Matter: Reimagining Freedom in the Twenty-First Century. University of California Press.Google Scholar
Ray, Rashawn. 2020. “Restructuring Civilian Payouts for Police Misconduct.” Sociological Forum 35 (3): 806–812.Google Scholar
Rogowski, Jon C., and Cohen, Cathy J.. 2015. Black Millennials in America. Online: Black Youth Project. Accessed June 27, 2023 at https://blackyouthproject.com/project/black-millennials-in-america-reports/.Google Scholar
Rosenthal, Aaron. 2020. “Submerged for Some? Government Visibility, Race, and American Political Trust.” Perspectives on Politics 19(4), 1098–1114. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592720002200.Google Scholar
Rosenwald, Michael S. 2020. “‘When the Looting Starts, the Shooting Starts’: Trump Quotes Miami Police Chief’s Notorious 1967 Warning.” The Washington Post, May 29, 2020. Accessed December 13, 2021 at www.washingtonpost.com/history/2020/05/29/when-the-looting-starts-the-shooting-starts-trump-walter-headley/.Google Scholar
Ryan, Jacob. 2016. “In the Weeks Following Darnell Wicker’s Shooting, Few Public Protests.” 89.3 WFPL. wfpl.org/why-no-protests-in-days-following-darnell-wickers-death/.Google Scholar
Sago, Renata. 2016. “In the Black Lives Matter Era, an Effort to Elect More Diverse Prosecutors.” NPR, November 5, 2016. Accessed November 25, 2020 at www.npr.org/2016/11/05/500714709/in-the-black-lives-matter-era-an-effort-to-elect-more-diverse-prosecutors.Google Scholar
Semenza, Daniel Charles, and Bernau, John A. 2020. “Information-Seeking in the Wake of Tragedy: an Examination of Public Response to Mass Shootings Using Google Search Data.” Sociological Perspectives 65 (1):0731121420964785.Google Scholar
Shaffer, Claire. 2020. “Here’s Where You Can Donate to Help Protests against Police Brutality.” Rolling Stone. Accessed December 22, 2021 at www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-news/george-floyd-protests-bail-funds-police-brutality-black-lives-matter-1008259/.Google Scholar
Shugerman, Emily, and Seavo James, Gerry. 2021. “Three Injured as Rival Armed Militias Converge on Louisville.” The Daily Beast. Accessed December 9, 2021 at www.thedailybeast.com/shots-fired-as-three-percenter-and-not-fucking-around-coalition-militias-face-off-in-louisville-kentucky.Google Scholar
Sigelman, Lee, Welch, Susan, Bledsoe, Timothy, and Combs, Michael. 1997. “Police Brutality and Public Perceptions of Racial Discrimination: a Tale of Two Beatings.” Political Research Quarterly 50 (4):777–791.Google Scholar
Silver, Brian D, Anderson, Barbara A, and Abramson, Paul R. 1986. “Who Overreports Voting?” The American Political Science Review 80(2): 613–624. doi:https://doi.org/10.2307/1958277.Google Scholar
Sklansky, David Alan. 2017. “The Changing Political Landscape for Elected Prosecutors.” Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law 14:647–674.Google Scholar
Skocpol, Theda. 1992. Protecting Mothers and Soldiers. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Skocpol, Theda, and Morris, Fiorina. 1999. “Making Sense of the Civic Engagement Debate.” In Civic Engagement in American Democracy, edited by Skocpol, Theda and Fiorina, Morris, 1–25. Washington, DC: Brookings Institute.Google Scholar
Skogan, Wesley G. 2006. Police and Community in Chicago: a Tale of Three Cities. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Smith, Candace, Lefferman, Jake, and Yang, Allie. 2020. “Progressive Prosecutors Aim to Change the Criminal Justice System from the Inside.” ABC News, October 1, 2020. Accessed June 27, 2023 at https://abcnews.go.com/US/progressive-prosecutors-aim-change-criminal-justice-system-inside/story?id=73371317.Google Scholar
Soss, Joe, and Schram, Sanford F. 2007. “A Public Transformed? Welfare Reform as Policy Feedback.” American Political Science Review 101 (1): 111–127. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055407070049.Google Scholar
Stinson, Philip M, Liederbach, John, and Brewer, Steven L Jr. 2016. “Police Integrity Lost: a Study of Law Enforcement Officers Arrested.” Criminal Justice Faculty Publications 63. Accessed June 27, 2023 at https://scholarworks.bgsu.edu/crim_just_pub/63.Google Scholar
Streeter, Shea. 2019. “The Racial Politics of Police Violence in the United States.” Ph.D. thesis, Stanford University (28113079).Google Scholar
Stroud, Natalie Jomini. 2017. “Attention as a Valuable Resource.” Political Communication 34 (3):479–489.Google Scholar
Tarrow, Sidney G. 2011. Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Taylor, Keeanga-Yamahtta. 2016. From #BlackLivesMatter to Black Liberation. Chicago: Haymarket Books.Google Scholar
Taylor, Verta, and Van Dyke, Nella. 2004. “‘Get Up, Stand Up’: Tactical Repertoires of Social Movements.” In The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements: 262–293. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470999103.ch12.Google Scholar
Tennenbaum, Abraham N. 1994. “The Influence of the Garner Decision on Police Use of Deadly Force.” The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology (1973–) 85 (1):241–260.Google Scholar
Testa, Paul, and Dietrich, Bryce J. 2017. “Seeing Is Believing: How Video Of Police Action Affects Criminal Justice Beliefs.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, CA. Accessed June 27, 2023 at https://convention2.allacademic.com/one/apsa/apsa17/index.php?program_focus=view_paper&selected_paper_id=1257179&cmd=online_program_direct_link&sub_action=online_program.Google Scholar
The Washington Post. 2023. “Fatal Force: 1093 People Have Been Shot and Killed by Police in the Past 12 Months.” Accessed March 13, 2023 at www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/investigations/police-shootings-database/.Google Scholar
Threadcraft, Shatema. 2017. “North American Necropolitics and Gender: On# BlackLivesMatter and Black Femicide.” South Atlantic Quarterly 116 (3): 553–579.Google Scholar
Tillery, Alvin B. 2019. “What Kind of Movement Is Black Lives Matter? The View from Twitter.” Journal of Race, Ethnicity and Politics 4 (2):297–323.Google Scholar
Truscott, Amanda. 2008. “A Knee in the Neck of Excited Delirium.” Canadian Medical Association Journal 178 (6):669–670. doi: https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.080210.Google Scholar
Tuch, Steven A., and Weitzer, Ronald. 1997. “Trends: Racial Differences in Attitudes toward the Police.” The Public Opinion Quarterly 61 (4):642–663.Google Scholar
Tucker, Michael Shawn. 2020. “When Law Enforcement Killed My Brother, There Was No Video.” The Washington Post, June 15, 2020. www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/06/15/matthew-tucker-riverside-county/.Google Scholar
Tufekci, Zeynep. 2013. “‘Not This One’ Social Movements, the Attention Economy, and Microcelebrity Networked Activism.” American Behavioral Scientist 57 (7):848–870.Google Scholar
Verba, Sidney, Lehman Schlozman, Kay, and Brady, Henry. 1995. Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Wade, Madison. 2021. “Minneapolis Police Press Release Tells Different Story of George Floyd Death.” April 20, 2021. Accessed June 15, 2021 at www.abc10.com/article/news/local/george-floyd/video-chauvin-kneeling-george-floyd-reason-3-guilty-verdicts/103-7cf53df9-a725-413c-867b-04e41e114689.Google Scholar
Walker, Hannah L. 2014. “Extending the Effects of the Carceral State: Proximal Contact, Political Participation, and Race.” Political Research Quarterly 67 (4):809–822. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912914542522.Google Scholar
Weaver, R Kent. 1986. “The Politics of Blame Avoidance.” Journal of Public Policy 6 (4):371–398. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0143814X00004219.Google Scholar
White, Ariel. 2016. “When Threat Mobilizes: Immigration Enforcement and Latino Voter Turnout.” Political Behavior 38 (2):355–382. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-015-9317-5.Google Scholar
White, Michael D, Ready, Justin, Riggs, Courtney et al. 2013. “An Incident-Level Profile of TASER Device Deployments in Arrest-Related Deaths.” Police Quarterly 16 (1):85–112.Google Scholar
Williamson, Vanessa, Trump, Kris-Stella, and Levine Einstein, Katherine. 2018. “Black Lives Matter: Evidence That Police-Caused Deaths Predict Protest Activity.” Perspectives on Politics 16 (2):400–415.Google Scholar
Woodly, Deva R. 2015. The Politics of Common Sense: How Social Movements Use Public Discourse to Change Politics and Win Acceptance. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Zhang, Yini, Dhavan Shah, Foley, Jordan et al. 2019. “Whose Lives Matter? Mass Shootings and Social Media Discourses of Sympathy and Policy, 2012–2014.” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 24 (4):182–202.Google Scholar
Zuckerman, Marvin, and Litle, Patrick. 1986. “Personality and Curiosity about Morbid and Sexual Events.” Personality and Individual Differences 7 (1):49–56. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(86)90107-8.Google Scholar
- 1
- Cited by