Abstract

The Baltic Sea is a brackish body of water in the heart of Europe, and within it lives a small whale: the Baltic Sea harbor porpoise. However, this animal is becoming increasingly more endangered. Due to various man-made threats, less than 500 animals remain in the sea. This thesis aims to provide a comprehensive overview of this issue with a political approach through discussing how the state of this animal reflects on the European Union. Furthermore, it investigates the European Commission's role and takes a closer look at EU Biodiversity Strategy 2030 to detect potential greenwashing.

Through the case study of the harbor porpoise, the central conflict between the European Union and the conservationists aiming to save the animal gets illuminated from different perspectives. The analysis makes use of European integration theory as well as a deconstructive approach, through which the study is able to detect that the issue largely stems from the respective member states. Moreover, it finds that the approaches of the European Commission and the conservationist align at the core principles. With the help of an interview conducted with a field expert, these points can be emphasized. Reflecting on the findings it can be concluded that essential regulations are finally being put into place, but there is still a long way to go to save the Baltic Sea harbor porpoise.

Keywords: Baltic Sea, Conservation, Biodiversity, Harbor Porpoise, European Union, European Commission, Member States, Integration Theory, Case Study

Abbreviations:

EU - European Union

EC - European Commission

EUSBSR - EU Strategy for the Baltic Sea region CFP - Common fisheries policy

EUBS 2030 - European Union's Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 IUCN - International Union for Conservation of Nature

MSDF - Marine Strategy Framework Directive

ASCOBANS - Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic, North East Atlantic, Irish and North Seas

ICES - International Council for the Exploration of the Sea

Table of Contents

1. Introduction... 6

1.1. Background and Motivation...6

1.2. Research Problem...7

1.3. Aim and Research Question...8

2. Literature Review...10

2.1. Introducing the harbor porpoise...11

2.2. General elements of conservation of the Baltic Sea in literature...12

2.2.1. Approach of the European Union on protecting and saving the Baltic Sea...12

2.2.2. Fishing and policies on overfishing by the European Union in the Baltic Sea...14

2.2.3. Effects of global warming and climate change...15

2.2.4. Baltic Sea harbor porpoise and the challenges it is facing...16

2.3. Conflicting positions and opposing actors of the discussion...18

3. Theoretical Framework...20

3.1. European Integration Theory...20

3.2. Introducing Sustainability as a theoretical framework...22

3.2.1. Introducing Greenwashing...24

4. Methodology...26

4.1. Methods and material...26

4.2. Further Methods: Case Study...27

4.3. Further Methods: Interview...29

4.4. Limitations...30

5. Analysis...31

5.1. Historical approaches of the European Union on cetacean conservation...31

5.2. Opening the case study - Baltic Sea harbor porpoise...32

5.2.1. Central conflict area of commercial interest between EU enforcement and member states...36

5.3. Greenwashing within official European Commission documents - biodiversity strategy 2030...39

5.4. Current status of conservation and the future of the Baltic Sea harbor porpoise...42

6. Conclusion...46

Bibliography...48

Appendix...61

Preface

There is a purely academic motivation behind the creation of this thesis, but there is also a very personal reasoning. This is a redirection of passion: upon completion of this Bachelor's degree, I will be pursuing a postgraduate degree in the field of marine biology. Specifically I will be studying Marine Vertebrate Ecology and Conservation , a field which I have been aiming to pursue since my childhood. My particular interest lies in making the public aware of the almost extinct porpoise species Vaquita. In order to align this interest with my current field of study, I was looking for a connection between Europe, politics and the porpoises as a way to practice science communication and research a similar topic.

The Baltic Sea harbor porpoise is critically endangered, and Europe is scrambling to save these animals. The issue of conserving this local species is close to my heart and therefore was the perfect research opportunity for this thesis, which aspires to examine all different perspectives when it comes to their conservation.

“The wildlife and its habitat cannot speak, so we must and we will.”

- Theodore Roosevelt

1.Introduction

1.1. Background and Motivation

“Europe” is a word with plenty of associations. The mind of many people wanders to the long history of the continent, the different cultures, unparalleled societies or the unique political landscape. However, one term generally seems to find little resonance in connection to Europe: the oceans. The borders of Europe are primarily maritime with the Atlantic on the West, the Arctic Ocean in the North, the Mediterranean and the Black Sea in the South and East-West. While the many spectacles on land such as political changes, cultural upheavals or social progress are well reported and raise awareness across the continent, it seems as though the happenings surrounding the oceans are a blind spot in the public eye.

The Baltic Sea, in particular, is often overlooked. Due to its geographic location, the smallest sea in Europe is considered a great place for vacation, amassing millions of (international) guests in the last decade. ¹ The Baltic Sea is entirely within Europe, enclosed by nine countries and spans over an area of 377,000 km². ² It also encompasses a rare animal, the Baltic Sea harbor porpoise, the only fully aquatic mammal in this sea. This animal has existed in the Baltic Sea for about 10000 years - since the formation of the body of water. ³ It is therefore an original inhabitant (as opposed to an invasive species) and crucial to the sensitive ecosystem of the sea. It may be assumed that the utmost attention is paid to protecting its natural resources within Europe as well as the conservation of wildlife and the overall biodiversity of the unique brackish sea.

However, research shows that the Baltic Sea is one of the most polluted seas in the entire world. In particular, waste pollutants such as microplastics and drug residues from medication including hormones are the main harmful substances damaging this environment. ⁴

The accumulation of these issues (which is just a small fraction of the negative impacts) do not go by the fauna and flora of the sea without leaving a trace. The harbor porpoise of the Baltic Sea has come to face these increasingly dangerous threats which ultimately might lead to its extinction. With an estimated amount of less than 500 Baltic Sea harbor porpoises left, immediate action is required to save these animals and preserve the delicate ecosystem of the Baltic Sea. Admits the European Union and applicable member states have come increasingly under the critique of conservationists and biologists as the lack of policies and regulations are not enough to ensure a stable maintenance of the porpoise population.

The motivation behind this thesis is to display an accurate and comprehensive deep-diveinto the legal implications and further factors which have caused this issue to arise, and especially raise awareness for the current lack of regulations within relevant member states and the European Union that endanger this porpoise species. Further, exploring the connection between a sustainability approach with a rare species of animal and the theoretical political discussion opens up interesting and fruitful research opportunities.

1.2. Research Problem

In order to sufficiently introduce the research aims and questions, this short chapter aims to establish the overall research problem. The overarching issue is found in the already diminished porpoise population which is further declining and is facing increasingly higher influences from other factors which hinder its rehabilitation - factors such as waste pollution, underwater noise pollution and overfishing. Ecosystems are delicate structures, in which each factor depends on another for balance. Just one species disappearing has massive impacts on the entire ecosystem. ⁵

This problem is put into the general context of protection of the Baltic Sea by the European Union and its member states. Overall, the member states of the EU on which the Baltic Sea borders are considered to be inadequate in enforcing policies in maritime protection - despite numerous statements and strategies offering promising approaches for improvements. The problem can concretely be located in the relevant regulations for baltic sea conservation, with particular regard for animal welfare. Further discussion regarding the structure of overall strategies aiming to protect the ecosystem and narrowing these issues down to porpoise conservation will be expanded on in the literature review.

1.3. Aim and Research Question

These research problems result in pointing the direction of this thesis into the research questions, which aid in specifying the problem into concrete questions from a wider research context. As described above, there is a political approach to wildlife conservation that can be made out, which is essential in establishing a foundation for the research. While the European Union is dedicated to conserving and protecting habitats for wildlife in the EU, the population status of the Baltic Sea harbor porpoise has declined nonetheless. Hence, a problem can be identified between the EU’s ambition and the actual enforcement capacity. This leads to the overarching research aim which dictates the research of the thesis -

under European law, harbor porpoises in the Baltic Sea are classified as highly protected. Yet, populations and health of the animals keep declining. This magnifies the major research question of the thesis:

How does the condition of the endangered porpoises in the Baltic Sea reflect the EU's action on protecting marine animals?

This question will also examine potential limitations to the research, such as economical and cultural factors which may be taken into consideration when enforcing new policies. The main focus of the research question is to present two opposing actors, the conservationists who aim to save the harbor porpoise on the one hand and the political sphere, in particular the European Commission, which is responsible for the enforcement capacity of this ambition on the other hand. Furthermore, said research question focuses on the immediate legislative action which must be taken to ensure the protection of population statuses of the porpoise in the near future. It sheds a light on existing strategies and policies in place to identify measurements and consequently their success or failure.

Alongside this question, it will also be touched upon the oftentimes criticized “Greenwashing” of the European Union in regards to official statements, outlook and published documents and strategies. Greenwashing is used to refer to making something appear more sustainable than it truly is - through virtue signaling, marketing and misleading

publicity. ⁶ Greenwashing as a concept will be further expanded on in the theoretical framework, but is now used to formulate the second research question:

Can greenwashing be detected within official documents issued by the EU and how might it impact the condition of the Baltic Sea harbor porpoise?

This second research question was formulated, as it goes hand-in-hand with a discussion on concrete actions and provides plenty of research for sustainability approaches within the EU which demonstrate these actions of the main research question. It is therefore utilized to supplement the findings of the first research question.

2. Literature review

The following chapter aims to map out the most relevant existing literature regarding wildlife and biodiversity conservation in the Baltic Sea and discuss the implications of overfishing, climate change and underwater noise with the concerning harbor porpoise population in mind. To showcase this, the issue is approached from a broader perspective: Looking at the multilevel political structures and strategies leads the way to discuss the failure and success of the EU on the front of sustainability and conservation. The literature is supplementary to the analysis as introduced actors and theories are made use of in the analysis. These chapters are intended to go hand-in-hand during the exploration of the research questions.

The literature review makes use of a concrete example to illustrate the broad EU legislation with a marine conservation background, documents such as the EU Strategy for the Baltic Sea region . This leads the discussion to a more detailed example in relation to these strategies which focus on fishing policies and overfishing in the Baltic Sea as well as the effects of global warming. After mapping out the general literature in the political sphere and showing the strategies on European Union level and current issues within the Baltic Sea, the literature review then concretises these issues by applying them to the Baltic Sea harbor porpoise. Although the main issue in this study explores its current habitat and conservation, it is crucial that the reader gains a brief insight into the species itself. Hence, the first chapter briefly introduces the animal. Finally, the conflicting positions and opposing actors of the literature review are summarized for clarification.

Overall it can be stated that there is a sufficient amount of literature which illuminates different perspectives, mainly published within the last five to fifteen years. There are several papers discussing the implications of a lack of biodiversity conservation efforts on multilevel governance positions as well as journals looking at the European Union's strategies for the Baltic Sea to save the ecosystem from becoming victim to external factors.

However, it is crucial to mention here that there are only a handful of papers dealing with the niche, specific issue of the porpoise evaluated in this thesis. Therefore, this literature review aims to broadcast the literature of this topic and is supplementary to the analysis. The comprehensive goal of this chapter is furthermore to introduce two opposing standpoints in the literature; the side of the European Union and efforts in conservation on the one hand, and on the other the conservationists critiquing the lack of immediate action. The third party which will be crystallized out in the discussion are the relevant member states, with a focus set on the Swedish enforcement of legislative action. This party is predominantly dealt with

in the analysis. Consequently, the literature review is divided into different sub-chapters, which allow to introduce the different actors and scholarly approaches separately.

2.1. Introducing the the harbor porpoise

As this thesis is written in the context of a political and cultural program with the audience consisting mostly of an academic political background, introducing the species in question is of benefit for the overall understanding of the reader and offers the general knowledge for further discussions and a better comprehension of the context of the case study. This venture into the world of zoology shall not take the attention away from the political direction of this thesis, but rather adds on to it, to provide a full understanding of each aspect discussed.

Porpoises are small odontoceti cetaceans- odontoceti refers to the toothed whales, which in contrast to the baleen whales possess teeth. Cetaceanrefers to the taxonomy of all members of the entirely aquatic mammals, habitating our oceans, which includes the whales, dolphins and porpoises. ⁷ Although porpoises can be confused with dolphins due to their smaller size, they are part of the whale family and not closely related to dolphins. Most porpoises have no distinguished beak and comparably smaller dorsal fins to dolphins. They are generally the smallest species of cetaceans and harbor porpoise range from black and white to light gray shades with a light underside and darker body to protect itself from predators. The diverse colors of harbor porpoise can be seen in the attached image (Figure 1).

The seven porpoise species are classified under the genus phocoena , and the porpoise species in question of this thesis is the phocoena phocoena , also known as harbor porpoise. ⁸ As the name “harbor” implies, this animal generally stays close to coastal areas and prefers habitat in the surrounding large islands or continents. ⁹ They are the most widespread porpoise, ranging around the Northern Hemisphere from North America and Europe all the way to Asia (Figure 2). ¹⁰ It is estimated that around 700.000 harbor porpoise remain globally,

with the largest population habitating in the Atlantic region in Europe with approximately

467.000 animals and the lowest population in the Baltic Sea with about 500 animals. ^{11 12}

Although this leaves the harbor porpoise with an IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) status of “Least Concern” overall, the status in Europe generally is “Vulnerable” and in the Baltic Sea even deemed as “Critically Endangered”. ¹³ Albeit the population in the Baltic Sea was never massive to begin with due to the smaller habitat, this extreme decrease of the animals massively impacts the delicate marine ecosystem.

2.2. General elements of conservation of the Baltic Sea in literature

There are three main elements which can be made out in the relevant literature on this issue: the political approach with a focus on the European Union, the sustainability approach (in particular global warming affecting the sea as well as different forms of pollution) and the focus on wildlife, especially the harbor porpoise. These fundamental approaches are interconnected and will be comprehensively linked to the methodology as evaluated in the upcoming chapter, but will now be presented purely on their academic groundwork.

2.2.1.Approach of the European Union on protecting and saving the Baltic Sea

Firstly, a look at the European Union's Baltic Sea conservation connection in literature. In 2009, the European Commission presented the EU Strategy for the Baltic Sea region(EUSBSR), the first macro-regional strategy of the EU - it was designed as a new model for cooperation. ¹⁴ The main objective of the EUSBSR is to meet and undertake the challenges common to the countries in the Baltic Sea region today. The strategy has three main principles: saving the sea, connecting the region and increasing prosperity. ¹⁵

Relevant for this thesis is especially the first principle. When applying the strategy to the country of Sweden, it entails that the ministries and government agencies bear primary responsibility for the implementation of the strategy at national level, and commitment at regional level is important for the strategy's many flagship projects. ¹⁶ Thus, ensuring that as a member state of the EU, the principle of saving the sea is guaranteed on a governmental level. The strategy has now been in place for thirteen years, which allows plenty of time to consider its effectiveness. An article in the Journal of Baltic Studiesreflects if the strategy was able to improve multilevel governance in Baltic Sea cooperation, and finds that the EUSBSR has not only revived stalled regional cooperation but has also contributed to increasing the visibility of individual actors of regional cooperation. Additionally, it enforced the establishment of more permanent contact points in many countries off the shore of the Baltic Sea. ¹⁷ This can generally be considered a positive outcome with an overall effective implementation in EU member states. However, the EUSBSR can be criticized for largely failing at its first principle - saving the sea. This can be divided into other strategies and documents, which will now also lead into the next element of the literature review, the sustainability approach.

The European Commission introduced the European Union's Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 in 2020 as a core part of the European Green Deal, which (amongst other goals) aims to make Europe greenhouse gas free by 2050. But this strategy and previous versions have become increasingly under critique from marine conservation experts. Particularly notable is the article “Biodiversity Strategy has largely failed to protect marine species and wildlife”, published by the Baltic Sea Center of the Stockholm University. It refers to the strategy which was aimed to be accomplished in 2020. The main point of critique is the failure in protecting species and habitat in the EU - not just within the Baltic Sea but all across member states. Too weak or no restrictions in permitted areas lay at the root of this problem. ¹⁸ With a perspective on restoration and repopulation of wildlife in the marine areas, this quote is exceptionally insightful on why the strategy was not able to achieve its goals:

“Focusing on restoration alone is not the solution, it has to go hand in hand with protection of habitats. In the marine environment, many coastal areas are heavily exploited, since human activities for a long time have reduced biodiversity and weakened the coastal ecosystems natural functions. In order to stop the loss of species and habitats and secure future access to important ecosystem services, urgent efforts are needed.” ¹⁹

2.2.2.Fishing and policies on overfishing by the European Union in the Baltic Sea

One way in which the strategy has failed to uphold to its standards is in the fishing industry. The European Commission has the common fisheries policy (CPF) implemented, a set of rules for sustainably managing European fishing fleets and conserving fish stocks. The latest reform of this policy took place in 2013, with a revised control system in 2018. One of the additional aims is stated as bringing attention to the environmental, economic and social dimensions of fisheries. However, the Baltic Sea fish stocks are on the brink of commercial extinction. ²⁰ Various experts, researchers and NGO companies have stated their concerns regarding the fish stock in the sea - making out unsustainable fishing practices at the heart of this problem.

Poland, Finland and Sweden are the largest Baltic fishing nations, with the fish species sprat and herring as the main fishing targets in the Baltic, making up for 85% of the total catches. ²¹ Fisheries management and policies have been rated as poor, as most fish stocks are exceedingly overfished and even fall out of safe biological limits. ²² Although these statistics are concerning, the EU itself is not to blame for these issues - the member states are responsible for this problem. It was discovered that the member states set the fishing quotas way above scientific advice. Fishery ministers of the concerning countries have been found to constantly set the total allowable catch (TAC) above the maximum

concerning levels, leaving the Baltic Sea overfished with no regards to the significance of the already strained ecosystem. ²³

The implications of these decisions are immense - not only on the economy but the wildlife dependent on healthy fish stocks as well. Particularly the Baltic Sea harbor porpoise, whose main diet consists of said fish species, are affected. As showcased here, the lack of implementation through the member states is at the central point of this conflict. This discourse is essential for the analysis, and the member state level shall be kept in mind for this discussion in the analysis chapter.

2.2.3.Effects of global warming and climate change

Furthermore, it needs to be mentioned that the literature which focuses on the environmental aspect within the field heavily lays emphasis on the effects of global warming on the Baltic Sea. Although this is a global issue and not concerning European politics alone, the consequences already are devastating. A model-study on the climate change effects on the Baltic Sea showed that the main impact of a global increase in temperature would lead to an overall increased temperature which would affect the salinity of the sea as well. The consequences would result in totally altered habitat conditions and therefore different distribution patterns of many species - a different climate also promotes the overgrowth of algae and bacteria, which cause harmful impacts on local species. ²⁴ Similarly, a paper exploring the impacts of climate change on the Baltic Sea ecosystem over the past thousand years discovered that global warming has an especially harsh impact on marginal seas. Smaller saline bodys of water are especially prone to developing anoxic areas with rising temperatures. An anoxic area is also referred to as an oxygen-free area which describes a dead zone, an uninhabitable place in an ecosystem. ²⁵ If increased greenhouse emissions cannot be stopped within Europe and globally, it would result in an even further increase in dead zones, leaving no more place for wildlife to exist.

Moreover, a study looking at climate effects on the Baltic Sea in the past 6000 years and discussing the future alterment of the marine ecosystem found that there is likely no

improvement of bottom water conditions in future global warming scenarios. This study, titled “Echoes from The Past: A healthy Baltic Sea requires more effort” also critiques the ineffectiveness of the current existing measurements which aim to protect the sea. ²⁶ The study was published in 2014, and the authors note in the conclusion:

“The information gained will provide a basis for improved management, implementations of policy strategies in the Baltic Sea environmental issue, and for adaptation to the future climate change.” ²⁷

Considering this was written over eight years ago and the current state of the Baltic Sea, as discussed in similar studies, has not improved. It once again emphasizes the point made by the Baltic Sea Center of the Stockholm University which heavily criticized the biodiversity strategy of the European Commission and the European Green Deal. As it can be seen from the resources above, the lack of response by the European Union and affected member states is putting the ecosystem of the Baltic Sea in danger. In particular, the Baltic Sea harbor porpoise is suffering these consequences.

2.2.4.Baltic Sea harbor porpoise and the challenges it is facing

As specified in the introductory chapter about the harbor porpoise itself, the Baltic Sea species is particularly worth paying attention to, as the population status is deemed critically endangered by the IUCN. Here, one of the most relevant articles for this research is worth mentioning, which in part also inspired this thesis; “Out of sight, Out of Mind: How Conservation is failing European Porpoises” is a research article published in 2021 which describes how European porpoises are theoretically “highly protected” under European law but in practice these legal protections have failed to generate effective conservation. ²⁸ It discusses the common threats affecting porpoise conservation and discusses its challenges but also offers recommendations to aid this problem. The article discovers six main threats to these animals:

Firstly, pollution through a bioaccumulation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),

which impact the fertility of wildlife in the Baltic Sea, including Baltics seals and harbor porpoise. These chemicals were shown to cause reproductive failure in the already naturally small population. ²⁹

Secondly, other contaminants are believed to also cause respiratory tract lesions in harbor porpoise, leading to a high amount of parasite loads found in Baltic harbor porpoise. ³⁰ Thirdly, porpoises are very vulnerable to bycatch, as the small animals often end up in

nets and drown - particularly dangerous are the thin nylon nets used to catch fish which were introduced in the 1960s. ³¹

Fourth, previously discussed overfishing has led to a lack of food sources. Fish stocks have been reduced so drastically that it is difficult for the porpoise to hunt the sufficient amount - if they catch some fish, it is likely they are not as fatty as the fish also suffer from similar conditions. ³²

Fifth, the noise-pollution. Similar to dolphins, porpoise communicate via echolocation, which allows them to sense their surroundings and correspond with each other. They “talk” with high-pitched bursts of clicks, and rely on this echolocation as their main sense. However, an increase in marine traffic due to shipping in the Baltic and offshore construction projects further disturb the animals. The additional noise under water is confirmed to dislocate echolocation and therefore hinders communication amongst the pods and the search for food. ^{33 34} Further, the noise pollution increases risk of locating nets which leads to bycatch, as explained in the previous chapter.

Lastly, the already mentioned climate change is causing a threat to the Baltic Sea harbor porpoise, as it increases risk of parasites, disturbs the ecosystem and creates dead zones.

Although the European Commission has just started to take this issue seriously and is implementing changes, the question remains why this conservation concern did not stir any changes until it is almost too late. The details of the history of conservationists aiming for change and which approaches were made within the last decades will be discussed in detail in the analysis. As the main points in the literature have now been presented, it is time to summarize the opposing views and approaches in conservation and politics.

2.3. Conflicting positions and opposing actors of the discussion

This cetacean is under attack from all possible levels; pollution, noise-pollution, lack of nutritious food, bycatch, climate change, parasites and destroyed habitats. Although the EU is now coming to terms with the urgency of the matter and is increasingly taking action to save the animals, this literature review found a lack of effort and engagement in prior years and decades which resulted in a drastic drop in population. Due to the constant pressure from researchers, such as shown in the article “Out of Sight, Out of Mind”, policy making has increased on the EU level - but it is important to note that this action is only relevant because it was not taken seriously before.

On the one hand, the literature review takes into account scholarly work by scientists working in marine biology, conservation, climate change and the like in the Baltic Sea. The position of the conservationists can be compressed into one common demeanor; they agree that the Baltic Sea bioconservation is in danger from all perspectives. On the other hand, it makes out the political actor, in particular the European Commission. This actor has the responsibility of negotiating on all levels to fulfill all requirements and find common ground between opposing positions. The third actor could be classified as the member states surrounding the Baltic Sea.

To give an example involving these actors in action: The conservationists interest lies in advocating for saving the harbor porpoise on the matter of underwater noise pollution. The member states interest lies in increased marine traffic in the Baltic Sea, as this provides shipping services and goods faster and is an important factor in the economy of the sea bordering countries. The European Commission’s interest consists of fulfilling the required standards of bioconservation strategies and policies, such as the EUBS 2030 and the CPF, as

well as ensuring stable economies within the member state countries. These negotiations certainly raise huge challenges, politically and ethically. From the existing literature, it can be concluded that the Baltic Sea’s ecosystem is facing increasingly dangerous man-made environmental challenges. These threats can largely be traced back to a lack of assertiveness on the political level in terms of law and policy enforcement, as well as weak strategies by the European Commission.

Overall, the overwhelming majority of literature on the topic written by scientists in the field agrees that the Baltic Sea and its biodiversity is suffering and that species, especially such as the only cetacean in the Baltic Sea, need to be protected with much stricter measurements. In most articles and studies it is made extraordinarily clear that stricter regulations must be taken sooner rather than later for wildlife to have a chance to recover in population.

3. Theoretical framework

In order to provide logical access to answer the research questions, there needs to be a strong theoretical foundation on which approaches can be built upon. The following theoretical framework aims to shed a light on theories which are relevant for this field and provide their definition in context to the formulated problem. The analysis will make use of two concepts in particular, which are applied as the different “lenses” through which the research questions are evaluated as well as provide a multi disciplinary concept approach.

First, theory is discussed on the political level: European integration theory is introduced and the early and current integration theories are expanded on. This is the purely theoretical part of the framework and aims to give stable grounds for a further deconstructive approach in the analysis. Moreover, the second major theory is introduced; the concept of sustainability as a framework. Sustainability furthermore provides an overview and access to the final theory of the framework - greenwashing. This previously mentioned theory is briefly evaluated, as it is the central part of the second research question.

3.1. European Integration Theory

To gain a thorough understanding of the concept of European integration theory, it is crucial to define integration in itself. Ernst Haas, one of the most influential neo-functionalist integration theorists defines integration as the process:

“ (...) whereby political actors in several, distinct national settings are persuaded to shift their loyalties, expectations and political activities towards a new center, whose institution possesses or demands jurisdiction over the pre-existing national states. ” ³⁵

Integration is a term which might seem obvious to describe at first, but through further research, it becomes notable how much discourse exists around this concept - especially through differing approaches.

One of the fundamental events in world politics in the twentieth century has been the creation of the European community and the evolution of the European Union. As the most successful example of European regional integration in the world, many scholars have thought to explain the genesis and development of European integration. As a general

definition European integration refers to the process of political, economic, industrial, legal, cultural and social integration states - wholly, or partially in Europe. ³⁶ This integration may take place in a political sense, or the political integration is described in the social sciences as a broader process and is narrowed down to the political and economic level. Political integration refers to uniting and unifying a group of two or more units and furthermore occurs when the linkage consists of joint participation in regularized, ongoing decision making. ³⁷ The political integration in building a political community with the political sphere units, as its contents through establishing the same frame of rules, creating common institutions with the power of decision making and projecting an identity of the integrated community as an entity. ³⁸

The general point in this integration process of delegating the autonomy of the political units is found in the newly reformed political community. As for European integration, the most notable integration in the political sphere was the creation of the European Union, although it might be argued that integration is an always ongoing process and can never be fully complete. There are various reasons for states to integrate - historically oftentimes through force and in recent years due to sharing common values and goals on which they agree to cooperate on and share resources, which has cultural reasoning and economic and peace keeping advantages. ³⁹ Moreover, current threats lead to integration processes due to security, in the face of a common external threat - for example, Ukraine’s potential integration to the EU due to the shared threat of Russia. ⁴⁰

Integration concepts within Europe can further be classified into early integration theories and current integration theories. Early integration theories include federalism, functionalism, and transactionalism. ⁴¹ The approaches of federalists in the early twentieth century aimed to understand the ways in which states could implement a mutual constitutional settlement which involved the delegation of power to a higher form of government in order to secure peace. ⁴² Federalism is mainly interested in unification, based

on the belief that it would tackle international anarchy and conflicts which would arise from it. ⁴³ In contrast, functionalism emerged as an alternative to federalists design, looking at approaches to organization about the international system. ⁴⁴ A functionalist approach to world order is based on the assumption that states can create a peaceful world society through gradualist and pragmatic, technical and economical cooperation. The core idea here is to eliminate nationalism which is regarded as a root cause to any war due to attacking national sovereignty. ⁴⁵ Finally, the concept of transactionalism. This early integration theory differs from the previous concepts, as it does not presume the need to establish federal bodies or functional agencies in order to ensure peace between nations. Rather, it seeks to provide sufficient integration at a social level to make conflict unthinkable. It views integration as a process of cultural assimilation, leading to the formation of international security communities. ⁴⁶

The current theories include neofunctionalism, intergovernmentalism, and liberal-intergovermentalism. Intergovermentalists view European integration from the standpoint of national states, searching for mutually advantageous bargains, whereas neofunctionalism explains integration as the outcome of cooperation and competition amongst societal actors. ⁴⁷ Intergovernmentalism defines integration as the outcome of cooperation and competition among national governments. This can be taken even further into the level of liberal-intergovermentalism. It is a variant of rationalist approach in international relations theory, specifically aimed to explore European integration - it includes realist and neoliberal elements. ⁴⁸

For the purpose of this thesis, the most relevant aspect of European integration theory is the relation between member states at the European Union itself. The introduction into the concept of European integration is given here, and an approach towards this concept in relation to governance is made use of within the analysis.

3.2. Introducing Sustainability as a theoretical framework

Sustainability has increasingly established itself as a buzzword in recent years, and also found its way into the political sphere. The concept of sustainability is introduced here to provide theoretical ground for the discussion of biodiversity and wildlife conservation issues and as a

way to introduce the concept of greenwashing.

In the broadest sense, sustainability refers to the action of maintaining or supporting a process throughout an extended period of time. However, as a theoretical concept it most often refers to an environmental context in regards to enforcing a more continuous effort to protect or save the planet. The article Concept of Environmental Sustainability argues that:

“The world will become sustainable in the end, one way or another.” ⁴⁹

Even with this rather nihilist-rationalist approach, the point is made that sustainability is an ever changing process with an endpoint. However, taking a step back from the final objective of sustainability leaves many questions, such as what defines core values of sustainability or how sustainability is implemented within the European Union. For example, scholars have defined that the current debate on sustainability often leads to misunderstandings - in particular, different spheres have different defining ideologies. ⁵⁰ The article distinguishes two main disputes when it comes to the meaning of executing sustainability. One major dispute relates to the ongoing discourse between ecologists and economists holding different visions about the limits of economic growth and the carrying capacity of the Earth. Another major dispute concerns the discrepancy between theoretical sustainability and practical sustainability. ⁵¹ Relevant for this analysis is especially the first discussion as it further emphasizes the two main actors of this thesis. The most insightful takeaway of this discussion develops when putting sustainability as a concept into perspective, which is shown through the idea of finite capital. In this case, economic logic requires that we maximize the productivity of the limiting factor in the short run, to invest in its increasing supply in the long run. ⁵² However, natural capital (arguing for sustainability) investing, in an economical sense, would mean waiting or referring from current consumption and therefore determines our environmental space for utilization. ⁵³

To summarize, these different approaches of economists and ecologists emerge from a different version of the future. The concept of sustainability has a different meaning to everyone depending on their altruistic ideals - this creates one of the biggest challenges humanity is currently facing in regards to global political approaches on climate change. The

article concludes by giving suggestions on how to reframe this debate; the main idea is to create an Environmental Utilization Space contract between earth and humanity, which requires improved communication and better research. However, considering this article was written almost over 25 years ago, it can be stated that these approaches to develop a global agreement on sustainability and its impact have largely been left unaffected.

Furthermore, it is demonstrated from the literature that the concept of sustainability was much more diffused and sparked more debates in the nineties and early two thousands - although still a highly polarizing subject, sustainability now evokes a rather uniform understanding. ⁵⁴

Notably, sustainability is coined as a buzzword in the introduction since it is used in all spheres - political, economical, ecological, social, etc. - as the ultimate rescue for humanity. To save ourselves from climate change, we as a collective must become sustainable. As this concept has reached such high resonance, companies, associations, parliaments and the like aim to present themselves to the public as sustainable as possible, despite their prospective economic goals. This is referred to as Greenwashing.

3.2.1.Introducing Greenwashing

The concept of Greenwashing stems from marketing - a technique of making something appear more sustainable than it really is. It creates a false impression of how ecologically responsible an action, a strategy, a statement, etc. truly is. ⁵⁵ The name greenwashing was coined in 1986 by Jay Westerfield, an American environmentalist. ⁵⁶ Green is a color we associate with nature and therefore using this color as a signal that whatever this color is associated with is also natural, fresh, ecological, sustainable, etcetera. Greenwashing simply includes making labels, documents, advertisement and the like in shades of green, while language is also subjected to greenwashing - words such as “clean, eco-friendly, non-toxic, chemical free, guilt free, all natural” are just a few examples of buzz terms which are used to convey the message to the consumer or customer that the product is sustainable. ⁵⁷ As a journal article in Organization and Environment discusses:

“Current corporate environmental strategy scholarship has tended to underrate symbolic corporate environmentalism by only looking at merely symbolic activities such as greenwashing, and not looking at the supply or demand for shared meanings around greening.” ⁵⁸

In contrast to genuine sustainability - such as companies taking action and proving their effort in decreasing their carbon footprint or similar - greenwashing is a facade with no genuine action or intent behind it. Although the concept of greenwashing is most often used to refer to an economic intent of a company or brand, it is just as applicable to the political level.

However, as the demand for sustainability increases and the (lack of) actions behind greenwashing is becoming more aware to the public, legal conducts are slowly being enforced. A recently published study looks at the consequences of misleading environmental marketing in different countries across the globe and explores the risk of greenwashing. Although certain countries such as France take action against misleading marketing through fines, there is still a lack of law enforcement to be found. Most often, these legal actions are based on the marketing frauds in general and do not explicitly cover greenwashing. ⁵⁹

4.Methodology

The Methodology section of the thesis aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the research design and methods used mainly in the analysis section. It will specify the chosen methods and material and offer explanation as to why they were chosen in particular.

The Methodology is introduced with an overview of the qualitative method and its epistemological relevance for the research as well as introducing selected resources. The chapter then moves on to discuss the purpose of a case study as part of research design. Moreover, the concept and relevance of an interview is showcased. Finally, the Methodology is concluded with a brief discussion about limitations in this research field and this thesis.

4.1. Methods and material

The core idea of the thesis is to illuminate and research the differences between the two sides; the EU’s approach to biodiversity conservation of the Baltic Sea harbor porpoise and the perspective of the scientists and conservationists working on the same cause.

This conflict is highlighted to show how the conservation efforts reflect on the European Union.In order to sufficiently provide an in-depth discussion of the critique and narrow down the puzzle to show where issues arise but also point out potential solutions, the analysis takes on a descriptive approach. Descriptive research is

“aimed at casting light on current issues or problems through a process of data collection that enables them to describe the situation more completely than was possible without employing this method“. ⁶⁰

In order to illustrate the actions and implications on both sides, descriptive research aids in ensuring that the theoretical discussion is still based on practical and concrete numbers and data. Whilst the discussion will be making use of said quantitative data, this data will be extracted from previous research and is mainly used to highlight points. Therefore, this analysis will not contain a “true” mixed-methods approach but rather a qualitative research design, supported by quantitative data.

Successively, it is crucial to critically analyze data but also question the motives behind policies or laws and investigate if it is truly feasible to save the Baltic Sea and its wildlife - and how realistic it is to protect the harbor porpoise. Therefore, the overarching and most important method of the analysis is a deconstructive approach. Deconstructive theory, even though it is a method, has a very philosophical origin. As the word itself suggests, “to deconstruct” means to break something down into its core parts to understand the true meaning. It analyzes sources with the intent that logical structures are based on binaries and that decisions and choices are inherently multifaceted. ⁶¹ Moreover, it gives a fascinating approach to the very binary literature in particular official documents - it offers a method to look behind the intent and discuss the origins of it. In hindsight to said documents and in particular when approaching governance, deconstruction as a critical method within political theory gives the ground to look at the introduced concepts such as integration and sustainability through a critical lense. ⁶² Therefore, the analysis will make use of descriptive research, which is critically assessed through the method of deconstruction.

The material can overall be categorized into two types: official released documents of the European Union / European Commission and academic research. The former mainly includes strategies, policy reports, regulations, etcetera. The deconstructive method will evaluate and put them into contrast to literature sources such as academic journal articles, newspaper articles, independent reports or commentary of a field expert. The official documents are brought into the discussion to explore the motives behind the EU’s guiding actions and the European Commission's commitment to them, but in order to gain an insight into the other approach, independent resources aid to enhance the opposite view. Classifying the material into primarily these types helps to structure a critical discussion and gives guidelines on which of the two sides an argument is being made.

4.2. Further Methods: Case Study

The probably most well-known description and justification of a case study was made by the scholar Robert K. Yin:

“An empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon in depth and within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident. ” ⁶³

Hence, a qualitative case study aims to research and study a complex phenomenon within its context. ⁶⁴ In this case, the study’s phenomenon would be the declining population and health of the harbor porpoise whilst the complexity is found within the different factors which go into its conservation with a focus on the political level and all the different actors and stakeholders which are involved in saving the animal. The context has two approaches: on the one hand, it is on the widest level Europe and narrowed down into the EU, member states, and the Baltic Sea. On the other hand, the context can be understood as the theoretical framework as well, where the context would be the appliance of different concepts and theories. Further, a case study is introduced when the research aims to examine the “how” and “why” on specific issues - in order to gain an insight into biodiversity conservation in the Baltic Sea, picking one species in particular upon which these issues are examined on illustrates the point in delivering measurable data. ⁶⁵

Critique on the research method of the case study has definitely been issued in the academic world, as some researchers claim it is no more than storytelling. ⁶⁶ However, in the case study of the harbor porpoise, it is essential to narrow the research down and the research is backed up with data, making the concern of storytelling irrelevant. The case study is tied to the research problem and the research questions and therefore provides a niche in the research. Evaluating the entirety of the wildlife in the Baltic Sea and its legislative protection would be too big of a project for this thesis to take upon, therefore one animal in particular makes the case much stronger.

Earlier in the thesis writing process, it was considered to include a comparative case study between the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea, as both oceans are of similar geographical category and harbor porpoises reside in both seas. However, it was decided against a comparative case study for three main reasons. Firstly, the political regulations, ocean

governance and policies surrounding the Black Sea differ too much from the one of the Baltic Sea to draw concrete conclusions, particularly in hindsight to EU directives which require international collaboration and include different political frameworks. Further, the harbor porpoises within the Black Sea (Phocoena phocoena ssp. relicta)is morphologically quite distinct from the Baltic Sea harbor porpoise, which results in differing outcomes from ecological influences. ⁶⁷ Although they face similar (man-made) threats, the animals are genetically rather distant. Lastly, due to limited time and word count, just one case study allows the thesis to examine the issue in depth, resulting in improved and concretisised research.

4.3. Further Methods: Interview

Following the theme of qualitative research, this thesis includes one interview conducted with a field expert. As there is only one interview and no questionnaire or survey, the aim of the interview is not to collect data but rather to enhance the research and bring perspective in the form of quotes into the discussion and mainly the case study. Further enforcing the benefits of including an interview are demonstrated in this quote:

“Not only is it the most often used tool in social work practice, the interview is also an essential device in research. Information can be gathered by this means when no other method is adequate or possible, yielding richer qualitative data than many other tools and techniques.” ⁶⁸

The interview in question was conducted with Ida Carlén, a researcher and conservationist who has worked with the Baltic Sea harbor porpoise since 2008. She began her work when writing a proposal for funding for the SAMBAH (Static Acoustic Monitoring of the Baltic Sea Harbour Porpoise) project and is currently working as the Biodiversity and Nature Conservation Officer at the Coalition Clean Baltic . She further is a PhD student at the Stockholm University, working on spatial distribution of the porpoise. As she is the leading author of the article which inspired this thesis (Out of Sight, Out of Mind, lit. review)her

expertise is essential in ensuring the latest scientific data is made use of in this thesis. Therefore, Carlén was chosen for this interview due to her many years in the field, abundant academic publications and being a pioneer at the forefront of conserving this cetacean. The interview with her was conducted via the platform Zoom on the 20th of April 2022 in a semi-structured interview. This interview technique allowed for a methodical approach while leaving the space for further explorations. ⁶⁹ She answered eight questions which she agreed to being recorded. The interview took approximately half an hour due to time limitations and some technical difficulties. The interview with Carlén will mainly be utilized to re-emphasize points in the discussion of the case study.

4.4. Limitations

In terms of limitations it must be said that, although previous research exists in this field and the topic is becoming increasingly more relevant, in particular the case study is still a rather niche perspective. Therefore, the analysis needs to take on an innovative path to examine the research questions. Furthermore, since it encompasses quite different perspectives, a limitation is also time. However, this is aided through the discussion of further research approaches in the conclusion. Although all interdisciplinary lenses are crucial for the further development of the field, the case study in particular also faces one major limitation: the subject in question is only the object of the discussion. Unfortunately, the harbor porpoise cannot be interviewed and therefore all data taken on them so far must be accepted as is.

Finally, it is important to note that although all findings in this thesis are presented objectively and researched as such - nonetheless, as a person who is clearly very invested in cetacean conservation, I have a natural bias. Even though both sides of the discussion are represented equally and pros and cons are discussed likewise, a limitation in this case would in a way be the natural human desire to lean towards one cause. However, this limitation is counteracted through the method of a deconstructive approach.

5.Analysis

In order to apply a deconstructive approach and give further insights into the interview, the analysis will now make up the final major chapter before the conclusion. The aim of the analysis is to provide a comprehensive answer to the two research questions, through the usage of the previously established literature review, theoretical framework and methodology. The analysis takes on different approaches and works with the two main actors of this thesis, which also will reveal a third component. It therefore briefly introduces the history of biodiversity conservation of the EU, and then opens up the field to the case study. Through the case study, the central conflict of the thesis, which makes use of integration theory, is further elaborated. Moreover, this approach is supplemented through an analysis which aims to detect greenwashing within the European Commission, looking at the EUBS 2030 and therefore answering the second research question, as well as giving insight into the overall research aim. After the major analysis, the potential future of the harbor porpoise in the Baltic Sea is discussed.

5.1. Historical approaches of the European Union on cetacean conservation

Recently, sustainability and biodiversity conservation seems to be a core focus of the EU, with an enormous amount of new strategies, regulations and policies being introduced just in the last couple of years. But how was this issue approached before it gained more attention? And what is the history of cetacean conservation within the EU?

A short recap of this subject opens up the discussion of the analysis as it provides background knowledge relevant for answering the research questions. The European Commission states that it has been committed to protect the invaluable biodiversity of Europe since 1998. ⁷⁰ But serious sustainable action can be traced back further: 1987 is often seen as a turning point in EC environmental policy, since environmental protection received its own chapter in the treaty. ⁷¹ However, as early as in 1946, legal protection was established in Europe regarding cetaceans; a framework provided by the International Convention for the

Regulation of Whaling (ICRW) aimed to regulate both the conservation and management of whale populations at global level. ⁷² This strategy focused mainly on whaling itself but already proves that steps in this direction have been taken early on. Currently, the body governing the implementation of the framework is the International Whaling Commission (IWC), where membership is restricted to governments and the EU therefore only holds an observer status. ⁷³ Similarly, already in 1991 an agreement was approved which aimed to protect small marine species - in 2008 an extension of the agreement came into force which established the project as it is know today and is especially relevant for this thesis: the Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic, North East Atlantic, Irish and North Seas (ASCOBANS) (Figure 3). The aim of the agreement is to promote close cooperation between countries with a focus on achieving and maintaining a favorable conservation status for small cetaceans. ⁷⁴ Here in focus is the action it has been taking on the Baltic Sea porpoise in cooperation with member states.

It can be concluded that the EU has always made itself out to be invested in environmentalism and has a history of protecting cetacean species in its waters. However, it has to be noted that the action to make change in terms of conservation almost always is suggested from an outside organization. Although the EU, in particular the Commission, is implementing suggested regulations and measurements from these organizations in recent years, there seems to be a historical reliance on outside advice, which is constantly urging for change. However, change is happening on multiple levels. As shown above, the ASCOBANS agreement is focused on cooperation between countries. This opens up the discussion of a further research area within the EU.

5.2. Opening the case study - Baltic Sea harbor porpoise

After a brief look at the history of cetacean conservation the major part of the analysis will now focus under the overarching lens of the case study. Through the case study, four main central conflict areas can be made out and expanded on. As all these research areas are interconnected and play a function in answering the research question, they are presented

within this context: the current challenges the harbor porpoise is facing, the member states role and how integration theory can be used to examine the case study, greenwashing within official documents and the future of the animals under the respective research findings. The literature review already introduced the Baltic Sea harbor porpoise and was able to detect the six main threats the cetacean is facing. These threats can now be expanded on with the knowledge and framework which could be established in the previous chapters, therefore putting the case study into a political context.

A first look into the politics of porpoise can best be illustrated through the overfishing within the Baltic Sea. To reiterate; Fishery ministers of the relevant member states have been found to constantly set the TAC above the maximum concerning levels, leaving the Baltic Sea overfished with no regards to the significance of the already strained ecosystem. ⁷⁵ Overfishing is the most engaging issue to tackle in this concern, as it involves all different actors as well as further factors such as the European economy and the commercial interest. It also causes two separate problems: the fishing nets might catch some fish - but that is an essential food resource of the porpoise. If the nets do not catch fish, the porpoise might end up entangled in them and drown. The shocking effects of overfishing through the member states on the porpoise was revealed by Carlén in the interview:

“What we worry is that if the porpoises can’t find the big fat fish, like herring for example is a very fat fish and if a herring is quite big then in one go the porpoise would get quite a lot ofenergy. (...) But now, the fish have a lower energy content than they used to have. So they spend more of their time looking for fish which then has a high energy expenditure.” ⁷⁶

In summary, the porpoises now have to go to greater lengths to find food, which is not even as nutritious - leading to more obstacles in their way. Furthermore, it is believed that due to the high output of energy and low intake, the blubber layer of the animals is affected. Blubber is a layer of fat crucial for survival, which all cetaceans possess and it stores their energy and insulates them from cold waters. ⁷⁷ Although it has not been proven yet, scientists like Carlén are drawing the connection between Baltic Sea seals and the porpoises, who both have

blubber. It is shown that the blubber of the seals is severely affected from similar threats and it is highly likely that the porpoises are suffering the same fate.

Circling back to the origins of the issue, fishing has a very strong lobby and it is considered a valuable activity that the member states try to keep due to traditionalism. Despite the strong policies of the CPF, fish stocks are driven to the brink of extinction in the sea. This creates a difficult dynamic: the EU is focused on marine conservation and aims to protect the fish through sustainable approaches - on the other hand, fishing has a strong cultural value and even more importantly a strong economic value. It is a multilevel problem, but if the food source is not ensured, no other measurement could possibly protect the porpoises. As Carlén reinforced:

“We should just stop fishing in the Baltic Sea - it’s totally overfished. There is nothing left to fish.” ⁷⁸

Of the six major threats to the Baltic porpoise, two can already be traced back to a lack of regulations of the member states - an interesting observation, which will be further expanded on in the chapter of European integration theory. Regarding chemical pollution (which affects the fertility and overall health of the animals) it can be said that toxins such as PCB have been banned in this marine area. ⁷⁹ However, due to its geography, the Baltic Sea is almost entirely enclosed and has brackish water. Carlén raises the point that therefore, the chemicals are way less diluted than in larger, open water bodies. Although it is now illegal, the Baltic Sea still contains a huge amount of mostly chemical pollution - particularly harmful are the pharmaceuticals which cause alterations to the reproductive health of the animals ⁸⁰. Furthermore, not only porpoises are affected by these chemicals, they have been found in fish too - which the porpoises eat and therefore even further ingest.

The European Commission of course also has a strategy ready for this issue - it is even mentioned in the EUBS 2030. The Chemicals strategy is aimed for creating a sustainable, toxic-free environment. ⁸¹ It was published at the end of 2020 and so far, marine

scientists have not been able to detect a decrease in chemicals in harbor porpoises. This concludes the first two man-made threats to the small cetaceans, and it is now up to stern political enforcement to truly protect the Baltic Sea and subsequently the porpoises from the pollution. However, as the two major threats which could be made out from the literature review, and these are just as difficult to tackle on a political level, once again proving how interconnected the EU is, but how heavily the commercial interest lies by the member states.

So, how does the condition of the endangered porpoises reflect on the EU’s action in the Baltic Sea? Although the literature review detected weak measurements within the EU and that regulations and policies are being implemented not with the urgency that is needed, it seems as though the EU comes off in a surprisingly good light. The main accusation which can be made against the EU is that action to protect the porpoises was only taken once it was almost too late - even though conservationists were urging for change previously. In this regard, it is also important to consider that each legislative action takes a long time within the systems of the EU. But what the analysis was able to work out is that the population and health status of the harbor porpoises mainly reflect unfavorable on the applicable member states. Through overstepping the, by the Commision set, TAC severely and thus removing the major food source of the animals, member states such as Sweden and Finland are contributing to the endangerment of the porpoises. As the quote by Carlén was able to reflect, it is much more a joint effort of the actor EU and the actor conservationists working together to implement changes within the member states, as opposed to the conflict between the two actors. Similarly, the commercial interest through underwater noise pollution and construction is leading in disturbing the ecosystem. It can be seen that the on-going conflict between the EU and the conservationists is played out on a member-states level, rather than on a EU-level. To further examine this hypothesis and lead to an answer of the first research question, implementing a deconstructive approach can aid in revealing these conflicts. Moreover, integration theory can be applied to provide an understanding of how and why member states are not following particular guidelines.

Before examining these multifaceted conflict areas, one quote from the interview is especially interesting to re-establish the point to be made. It illustrates the complexity of the conflict area and summarizes the different political stages, cultural changes and economic decisions which go into this cause:

“The EU law says that we should protect these animals and it sort of gives us tools on how to do it - but countries aren’t willing to spend the money, and spend their political

capital, because it would obviously affect the use of the sea. For some people, like fishermen would be affected, construction of wind-farms would be affected, they just don’t think it's worth it. “ ⁸²

5.2.1 Central conflict area of commercial interest between EU enforcement and member states

Throughout this thesis, there is a discussion between the two major actors which put the research question into context. However, as already hinted at in the literature review, another actor comes into play when evaluating the conflict area. This actor can best be introduced by a quote from the interview with Carlén, where she speaks about the obstacles when it comes to putting conservationist measures into practice:

“The people that I am in contact with (...) they are on our side. They want to see measures. They really want to see legal change - the habitats directive for example - implemented. But the Commission is nothing more than a tool of the member states. (...) They cannot force countries to do something.” ⁸³

Here, she makes a crucial point and simultaneously opens up the discussion about commercial interest, the EU’s ambition, and the actual enforcement capacity within the member states. What stands between the aims of the conservationists and the regulations of the EU are the member states. No measurements are able to successfully implement marine bioconservation if the relevant member states fail to meet the requirements. This creates a central conflict of interest area for which integration theory will be used to study this research puzzle - and further deciphers the main research question as it also looks at the member states when it comes to harbor porpoise protection.

To introduce this problem on a larger scale, an example of its habitat, the Baltic Sea can be used. In 2021, the CCB and WWF found that the updated plan to achieve good overall environmental status of the sea lacks strong commitment and political ambition. ⁸⁴ Originally, the Baltic Sea Action Plan (BSAP) was intended to drastically reduce pollution in the Baltic

Sea and restore a good ecological status by 2030. However, the BSAP actions fell short - only 25% of all national measures were implemented by the countries. ⁸⁵ Hence, a much stronger political ambition is required for the upcoming eight years on member states level. This case is interesting for integration theory, as it shows the European Commission and conservationists working together on the same cause, as reinforced by Carlén - however, the lack of implementation is the fault of the member states. Through investigating these failures, it could be traced back to the lack of political will and leadership of the governments. ⁸⁶ Reflecting on the failure of the BSAP but also suggesting further consultation, De Lidekerke, Manager and Interim director of the WWF Baltic Ecoregion program, says:

“To reach this goal, cooperation and commitment on a regional level is of the utmost importance.” ⁸⁷

But how does this cooperation function between such sizable actors such as the members of the EU? And what challenges might this pose in the context of bioconservation? A potential access to these questions can be found in European integration theory.

As Sweden has the largest geographical border on the Baltic Sea, it also is especially responsible for upkeep with the guidelines set to ensure the Baltic Sea remains healthy. But there has been an infringement procedure running against Sweden since 2020 due to a failure of following the set guidelines. The Commission sent a formal notice to Sweden, and Sweden had to respond within a certain amount of time - yet the Commission has not really done anything. But looking at the infringement packages, this seems to be a systemic issue: The Commission is sending out the procedures due to the member states failing to comply their obligations under law regarding environmental protection. ⁸⁸ These processes seem to stem from a problem, which can be defined as the fact that the EU is, and always has been, in constant transition. ⁸⁹ It is a unique system, in the way it embodies both supranational and intergovernmental features in its system of governance, and it is historically unmatched in the way it shares policy responsibility between different levels of government and different

nation states. ⁹⁰ This highly complex system operates on such an extensive amount of levels, that processes such as infringement procedures due to a lack of environmental and sustainable enforcement become tied within themselves. Furthermore, European integration theory helps to approach these complex systems in order to conceptualize them; in this case the EU can be compared to a state; operating territorially within Europe, administering sovereignty through EU jurisdiction and commanding legitimacy through e.g Common Commercial Policy. ⁹¹

But although the member states are respectively bound to their status as an entity through the EU, a certain lack of earnestness in uniting and following its legislative framework can be detected. However, here the central conflict between the EU and the member states can be found which Carlén also stated in the quote above: The EU is a set of institutions and rules designed to strengthen the European states by encouraging them cooperate, it is not about depriving them of sovereignty - therefore, forcing Sweden with its delegated authority to follow the regulations regarding a protection of the Baltic Sea would lead to a totalitarian governance which the EU has been aiming to avoid, as the power is more tilted towards the member states. ⁹² This issue can once again be broken down into its core problem through integration a quote of the interview:

“(...) And sure, the legislation itself could probably be improved. But it doesn’t really matter because it is not implemented. The implementation is obviously the biggest problem - and that's down to member states in the end. They signed on to this legislation - and they don’t follow it.” ⁹³

Therefore, European integration theory can distinguish that the member states, although technically united under the European Union, still face the struggle of cultural integration under one common EU law. This, amongst other issues, results in a lack of complied regulations which then influences marine protection within Europe, leading to a declining population of the porpoise. The most essential takeaway here was to develop the role of the member states in this discussion and place them in the context of the previously established conflict between two actors - showcasing that the conflict is played out on a

member states level through the example of Sweden. This recenters the conflict of the two actors which presented the EU and the conservationists working against each other, and shifts it into a conversation of these two actors uniting through similar principles but reach their limits when it comes to enforcing the regulations for protection within the member states.

However, aforementioned guidelines and policies are also communicated to the public through official documents. The way in which these influence the outlook on sustainability will now be at the center of the critical analysis for the second research question.

5.3. Greenwashing within official European Commission documents - Biodiversity Strategy 2030

Now that the previous approaches and motives of the actors have been illustrated, it is time to dedicate this chapter to the second research question. The document in question is the aforementioned EUBS 2030, which will be introduced through the descriptive method, and the intentions are dismantled through a deconstructive approach. This will aid in detecting greenwashing within official documents. Furthermore, a look is taken at the formulation and structure of the content. The EUBS 2030 is chosen as the working example as it is a clear strategy and is more comprehensive than the European Green Deal. Furthermore, its document structure can best be analyzed for greenwashing and the like.

Following this exploration, it is discussed how the potential greenwashing might be affecting the condition of the Baltic Sea porpoise. The EU Biodiversity strategy 2030 was made publicly accessible on the 19th of May 2021 and introduces itself with the slogan “Bringing nature back into our lives”. ⁹⁴ The front page shows a blooming field of flowers and trees, and the content section is supported by dynamic green lines and font color. A foreword is included by Virginijus Sinkevičius, the Commissioner for Environment, Oceans and Fisheries. Next to a text explaining the need for immediate action and the current state of nature within Europe, images of butterflies, bees, and healthy trees are shown. ⁹⁵

The strategy for 2030 itself is introduced through the leading words “One Vision, One Goal, Fours Pillars” which are accompanied by buzzwords such as “restored, resilient, protected”. The four pillars, which all showcase the different approaches taken to make this vision come alive are then unraveled, presented with beautiful animal pictures and nature on

the background of earthy brown, beige, blue and green colors. ⁹⁶ Visually, the document is designed quite colorful and is aesthetically pleasing to look at - it seems dynamic and is well balanced between images and text. Through the four-pillar structure, it is easy to follow and the goals are laid out very clearly. Ignoring the messages and intentions behind the text, it can be said that this is a great document to be released to the public, especially since it is accessible for people who might not be experts in the field.

From a first look, the EUBS 2030 might easily be dismissed as greenwashing, as it ticks all the marks in theory of what makes something to be considered greenwashed - green colors, positive images of nature, clean oceans, buzzwords etc.. Here it is important to keep in mind that even though it is a political institution, the European Commission is still marketing itself, and documents as these still need to fulfill public relations criteria. However, it is not as simple. Moreover, there is another component which needs to be taken into consideration: making this document accessible to as many EU citizens as possible increases awareness, which is very needed and goes with the current zeitgeist of sustainability. But these big ambitions can also be seen as creating false hope - promising political change in terms of environmental protection but not sticking to the promises is something the European Commission has been heavily criticized for multiple times, as shown in the previous chapter. Another example where the strategy might be creating false hope based on scientifically wrong claims is in terms of river restoration; the strategy aims to restore and clean up at least 25,000 km of free flowing rivers. Although the strategy reflects that implementation in this regard is lagging behind, the aim is still set out. However, an assessment of European rivers found that 90% of river basins will still be unhealthy by 2027. ⁹⁷ Therefore, it is unlikely that this will be turned around and match the goal of the strategy by 2030. In this context, a quote from the interview regarding the greenwashing within the EU is interesting to reflect on:

“So I agree with what you say with greenwashing and everything… I just really don’t know how to get to the point where they do (implement measures). I think one thing that has surprised me since I started at CCB six years ago is how much power we have as NGOs. We are actually listened to - especially by the Commission - which I

think is really interesting. Our contributions are very much appreciated, especially when we base what we say on science .” ⁹⁸

Carlén makes the point that the NGOs have power on the political level, but it might be interesting to flip this statement around: they do not (only) have power because they base their contributions on science, but because the Commission is aware that these NGOs are able to independently and critically research their claims and strategies.

In summary, this document could be declared as a double-edged sword when it comes to greenwashing. On the one hand, the overall design of the document as well as the new regulations and measurements can be seen as virtue signaling and nothing more than a public relations stunt to distract from the fact that many of these aims are scientifically unrealistic to achieve. Nevertheless, the document itself is not greenwashing per se - it might be called hope-washing. Hope is generated through promising effective regulations and a clear plan. But these very ambitious regulations are only partially to be achieved within less than ten years.

However, creating a very ambitious plan which generates hope can also be highly effective - setting high goals and creating a collective positive spirit in the political sphere can be beneficial if overall societal morale is low. But a motivating and positive outlook of a document does not make it immun to critique - on the contrary, it is important to critically assess official documents to understand how realistic these measurements truly are. As the review already stated, the strategy can be regarded as a double-edged sword and the same applies to how it is affecting the conservation of the harbor porpoise. Due to previous findings of integration theory and greenwashing, a reflection on how this document might affect the porpoise. Within the EUBS 2030, no “real” greenwashing can be made out, even though it might appear like it from a first impression. However, it also sets these previously discussed very high ambitions and presents an extremely positive future for the nature of Europe in just a couple of years. Although this can be motivating for citizens or even member states themselves, the generally positive outlook of the strategy could also deflect from how serious the situation regarding the harbor porpoise is. The confident direction the European Commission takes on in the strategy leaves no room to contemplate a local animal which might be facing extinction soon.

Therefore, it can be concluded that albeit greenwashing cannot be made out in this strategy as such, it signals that the upcoming measurements are sufficient in saving the porpoise - which is dangerous if taken lightly. Nonetheless, action is increasing and especially the year 2022 has so far been looking up for the porpoise, as elucidated in the final chapter of the analysis.

5.4. Current status of conservation and the future of the Baltic Sea harbor porpoise

Although the question remains as to why the conservation efforts have not been taken seriously until it was almost too late, things are starting to look up for the porpoise, at least regarding action being taken on the political level. In June 2020, during a meeting of the ASCOBANS Jastarnia Group, the steering group responsible for overseeing the ASCOBANS recovery plan - for the Baltic harbor porpoise - discussed the advice from the ICES advice and sent its comments. ⁹⁹ Ida Carlén stated:

“We are very pleased with the ICES advice and we hope that the Baltic Sea countries will implement the measures proposed in full, and for the long-term, so that the Baltic Proper harbour porpoise population is finally given a chance to recover.” ¹⁰⁰

Two years later, this discussion found its way into the political level of the EU. On the 25th of February 2022, the Ocean and Fisheries department of the European Commission announced that finally, new protective measurements were being put into place. ¹⁰¹ The main objective is to protect the animal from the currently existing main threat; being caught as bycatch in fishing nets. This is being enforced by closing down 11 marine areas which were subjected to fishing with static nets, or fishing gears must be equipped with acoustic deterrent devices to warn away the porpoise. ¹⁰² Within Sweden, these measurements include:

● A year-round closure for fishing with static nets in the Natura 2000 area of Hoburgs bank och Midsjöbankarna

● A year-round closure for all fisheries, except for fishing with pots, traps and longlines in one area (Northern Midsea Bank)

● A seasonal closure for fishing with static nets in nine Natura 2000 sites, within Sweden Sydvästskånes utsjövatten

● The obligatory use of acoustic deterrent devices in Natura 2000 sites within Sydvästskånes utsjövatten as well ¹⁰³

As discussed previously, these are the outcomes of the almost two years of joint efforts by the Commission and eight Baltic Sea Member States (Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Sweden), resulting in a binding EU Regulation. ¹⁰⁴ According to a statement by Virginijus Sinkevičius, the previously introduced Commissioner for Environment, Oceans and Fisheries:

“We are increasing the protection of these critically endangered marine mammals, but still more needs to be done (...) These measures were proposed by the Member States directly concerned and, according to science, they are only the first step. We will continue to work closely with the Member States on additional measures to improve the protection of this iconic species and help the recovery of its population.” ¹⁰⁵

The progress is a huge step in the right direction as it shows that the EU is aware of this issue and their strategies are slowly starting to align with the actions taken on a legislative level. Although this is a pleasant development, it has to be noted that the measurements can still be deemed as not drastic enough, considering the IUCN status. The argument is to be made that although acoustic noise deterrent might keep the animals from ending as bycatch, it is still disturbing their natural environment and behavior. Similarly, seasonal closures still provide the threat that the porpoise might end up in nets during off-season. As the Organization Seas At Riskstates in an article reviewing these measurements:

“More comprehensive measures are needed to minimize the risk of bycatch, and theseprotections should be extended to all areas where the harbour porpoise is found, including outside MPAs.” ¹⁰⁶

An article of the Whale and Dolphin Conservation Germanycommented that the new regulations are the minimum common political denominator that EU member states have been able to agree on, while the actual protective effect of this restricted gillnet ban falls far short of their demands. ¹⁰⁷ Nonetheless, the measurements and statement of Mr. Sinkevičius in which he states that these are only the first steps can be considered a success for both actors, the EU and the conservationists.

Even if things are looking up, the future of the porpoise remains uncertain. According to the same report on the new protective measurements, there is a high chance of recovery if all these measures were implemented correctly, in full force. These calculations are based on a study aiming to generate rehabilitation after bycatch incidents in the common dolphin (delphinus delphis) and the harbor porpoise, according to the ICES. It was found that the level of incidental catches of Baltic harbor porpoises would allow the population to recover to 50% of its carrying capacity 95% of the time over the long term. ¹⁰⁸ That level was calculated as 0,7 individuals by-caught per year. ICES stated in its advice that, considering the life history of small cetaceans, any protection measures can only be effective when applied continuously for a long period. ¹⁰⁹

Another aspect to consider for the future conservation status is public awareness. Not many citizens within the EU are even aware that this animal exists, yet that it lives within the Baltic Sea or that it is critically endangered. Science communication is a crucial part in raising attention for these causes. The Coalition Clean Baltic is tirelessly working on changing that - through providing the latest news and studies and engaging the public in this

cause. Most recently, they organized the celebration of the international day of the Baltic Sea harbor porpoise (15 May) in Stockholm at the Baltic Sea Science Center, an event to raise awareness. Similarly, the petition #SAVETHEBALTICPORPOISE was brought to life which gives citizens from all over the EU the chance to engage and make an impact on EU laws - another technique to communicate the issue and also offer the solution to make a change. ¹¹⁰ The outcome of all measurements and the fate of the Baltic Sea harbor porpoise is still undecided. But change is happening through the unification of the actors and due to increased awareness. My aspiration for this thesis is to contribute a small part to this awareness!

6.Conclusion

Throughout the thesis there is a central discourse which explores the relationship between biodiversity conservation efforts within the Baltic Sea and the EU’s implementation carried out through the member states, which is illustrated by the case study of the Baltic Sea harbor porpoise. This discourse is led by two research questions, which aim to give a comprehensive overview of the issue. The first question takes on a broader perspective and aspires to show how the situation of the endangered porpoises habitating in the Baltic Sea reflect EU’s effort on protecting marine animals. Through analyzing the tension between the conservationists and the European Commission protecting the population of the porpoise and conducting the interview with the field expert Ida Carlén, this study was able to make an interesting observation: most necessary regulations and policies are already enforced by the EU which would save the animals. By applying European integration theory in a deconstructive approach, this thesis was able to define that this lack of regard for the animals is predominantly found in the member states which inadequately follow measurements and therefore largely fail to protect their local marine environment.

The second question was devoted to a more narrow research subject, as it attempts to detect greenwashing within official documents released by the European Commission. In order to prove or disprove this theory, only one document would be needed - for this case the EUBS 2030 was chosen. Deconstructive approach was applied to the descriptive research to answer this question, and through these methods, a fascinating result could be established.

Although the document appears as greenwashing from a first look, there is a much more complex answer behind it. As the European Commission is trying to present itself in a sustainable way, the documents are a way to carry the value to the citizens and reflect it in public strategies. Therefore, the thesis was able to detect that it is not greenwashing in and of itself but rather a form of virtue signaling or a PR marketing strategy to evoke hope, which is not inherently a bad thing but a fact to be aware of and to critically consider.

Moreover, it is much more substantial to consider how the measurements proposed within the strategy will truly be implemented. It can be concluded that if the aims of the EUBS 2030 will be met, there is no greenwashing to be detected. However, if the results cannot be presented, it was a marketing measure to disguise a - in this perspective - failing political

institution. The second research question was furthermore intended to supplement the research aim as it connects back to the conservation status of the harbor porpoise. Certainly, it cannot be said for sure if the greenwashing is affecting the porpoise in the future. But similarities could be detected between statements in the past and failed action on a member state level. Therefore, there is a possibility of these “empty” strategies reflecting back on the EU - another result to be added to the primary research question. Further research within this area could include a comparative case study between the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea, as touched upon in the methodology. Additionally, zooming in on the various threats the porpoise is facing and evaluating them singularly could open up further discussion; for example a connection between communication of the porpoises and the EUs measurement of noise deterrent from nets. This would provide a unique research relation between the ecology of an animal and how a political action might be influencing its communication.

Finally, as the last part of the analysis was able to define, not all hope is lost. NGOs are working tirelessly to raise awareness on the political and cultural level and communicate the science to the public. And the EU is finally following the example and is taking more strict measurements to protect the natural habitat. Recently, a petition has been established to save the porpoise and scientific articles published on the matter have caused attention which will hopefully lead to an increased level of action on member state level. Although there is still a lot of work which needs to be done to save the habitat and food sources of the Baltic Sea harbor porpoise, changes are finally happening;

progressively more people are following the words of Theodore Roosevelt, and are lending a voice to the wildlife and its habitat.

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Appendix

Figure 1:

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111

Figure 2:

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Figure 3:

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² N.A. (N.d). Baltic Sea - WorldAtlas. World Atlas. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://www.worldatlas.com/seas/baltic-sea.html

³ Porpoise Conservation Society. (n.d.). Harbour Porpoise . Phocoena phocoena. Retrieved May 19, 2022 from https://porpoise.org/about-porpoises/harbour-porpoise/

⁴ Haavisto, P. (2017, November 21). Our Baltic Sea – Let's Fix the Damage We Have Caused . Blastic - European Union. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://www.blastic.eu/baltic-sea-lets-fix-damage-caused/

⁵ Jones, S. T. (2016, August 15). Oceans in Balance. Center for Biological Diversity . Center for Biological Diversity. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://medium.com/center-for-biological-diversity/oceans-in-balance-5fac608069a5

⁶ Kenton, B. (2022, March 22). Greenwashing Definition . Investopedia. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://www.investopedia.com/terms/g/greenwashing.asp

⁷ N. A. (2021). Taxonomy: classification of Cetacea . International Whaling Commission. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://iwc.int/about-whales/cetacea

⁸ Porpoise Conservation Society. (n.d.). Harbour Porpoise . Phocoena phocoena. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://porpoise.org/about-porpoises/harbour-porpoise/

⁹ Ibid.

¹⁰ Keener, B. (2021, October 20). Harbor Porpoise | NOAA Fisheries . NOAA Fisheries. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/harbor-porpoise

¹¹ Amundin, M.; Carlström, J.; Thomas, L. et al. (2021, December 20). Estimating the abundance of the critically endangered Baltic Proper harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) population using passive acoustic monitoring . DiVA portal. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from

https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1645963/FULLTEXT01.pdf

¹² Hammond, P., & Lacey, C. (2017, May 2). New study: 1.5 million whales, dolphins and porpoises in European Atlantic . University of St Andrews News. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from

https://news.st-andrews.ac.uk/archive/new-study-1-5-million-whales-dolphins-and-porpoises-in-european-atlanti c/

¹³ Ibid.

¹⁴ Gänzle, S., & Kern, K. (2016). The European Union Strategy for the Baltic Sea Region. In: Palgrave Studies in European Union Politics (pp. 123–144). Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-1-137-50972-7_6

¹⁵ Ibid.

¹⁶ Government Offices of Sweden. (2018, September 4). Management and coordination in Sweden.

Government.se. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://www.government.se/sweden-in-the-eu/eu-strategy-for-the-baltic-sea-region/management-and-coordinatio n-in-sweden/

¹⁷ Gänzle, S. (2017). The European Union’s Strategy for the Baltic Sea Region (EUSBSR): improving multilevel governance in Baltic Sea cooperation? In: Journal of Baltic Studies(Volume 48, pp. 407-420). Issue 4: Macro-regional Strategies of the European Union, Russia and Multilevel Governance in Northern Europe.

¹⁸ Löf, M. (2021, April 26). Biodiversity Strategy has largely failed to protect marine species and habitats in the EU . Baltic Sea Center Stockholm University. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://balticeye.org/en/baltic-eye-blogs/baltic-eye-comments/biodiversity-strategy-has-largely-failed-to-protect- marine-species/

¹⁹ Ibid.

²⁰ Oceanographic Staff. (2019). Baltic Sea fish stocks at risk of 'commercial extinction' - Oceanographic - Oceanographic . Oceanographic Magazine. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://www.oceanographicmagazine.com/news/baltic-sea-overfishing/

²¹ OCEANA Staff. (n.d). The Baltic Sea. Oceana Europe. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://europe.oceana.org/en/our-work/baltic/overview

²² Ibid.

²³ Carpenter, G., & Heisse, C. (2019, December 4). Landing the blame: overfishing in the Baltic Sea 2020. New Economics Foundation. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from

https://neweconomics.org/2019/12/landing-the-blame-overfishing-in-the-baltic-sea-2020

²⁴ Neumann, T. (2010). Climate-change effects on the Baltic Sea ecosystem: A model study. In: Journal of Marine Systems , Volume 81, ed. Issue 3, pp. 213 - 224. Elsevier.

²⁵ Kabel, K., Moros, M., Porsche, C. et al. (2021, July 1). Impact of climate change on the Baltic Sea ecosystem over the past 1,000 years. In: Nature Climate Change, Volume 2, pp. 871–874.

²⁶ Kotilainen, A., Arppe, L., Dobosz, S. et al. (2014, February 1). Echoes from the Past: A Healthy Baltic Sea Requires More Effort. In: Ambio, Volume 43, Issue 1, pp. 60-68.

²⁷ Ibid.

²⁸ Carlén, I., Nunny, L., & Simmonds, M. P. (2021, February 4). Out of Sight, Out of Mind: How Conservation Is Failing European Porpoises. Small Cetacean Conservation: Current Challenges and Opportunities , Frontiers in Marine Science. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2021.617478

²⁹ Murphy, S., Barber, J. L., Learmonth, J. A. et al. (2015). Reproductive failure in UK harbour porpoises Phocoena phocoena: legacy of pollutant exposure? PloS ONE 10:e0131085. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0131085 ³⁰ Siebert, U., Pawliczka, I., Benke, H. et al. (2020). Health assessment of harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) from Baltic area of Denmark, Germany, Poland and Latvia. Environ. Int. 143:105904. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.105904

³¹ Otterlind, G. (1976). The Harbour Porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) Endangered in Swedish Waters . International Council for the Exploration of the Sea.

³² Kauhala, K., Bäcklin, B.-M., Raitaniemi, J. et al. (2017). The effect of prey quality and ice conditions on the nutritional status of Baltic gray seals of different age groups. In: Mammal Research.Volume 62, pp. 351–362. doi: 10.1007/s13364-017-0329-x

³³ Larsson, K. (2016). Sjöfart Och Naturvärden Vid Utsjöbankar I Centrala Östersjön - Havsplanering Kan Reducera Konflikter (No. Havs-och Vattenmyndighetens Rapport 2016:24). Gothenburg: Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management.

³⁴ Wiśniewska, D.M., Johnson, M., Teilmann, J. et al. (2016). Ultra-high foraging rates of harbor porpoises make them vulnerable to anthropogenic disturbance. In: Current Biology. Volume 26, Issue 11, pp. 1441–1446. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2016.03.069

³⁵ Wiener, A., Börzel, T. A., & Risse, T. (2019). European Integration Theory(A. Wiener, T. Risse, & T. A. Börzel, Eds.; Third ed.). Oxford University Press, USA.

³⁶ Ioannou, D., Leblond, P., & Niemann, A. (2015). European integration and the crisis: practice and theory. In:

Journal of European Public Policy, Volume 22, Issue 2, pp. 155-176. doi: 10.1080/13501763.2014.994979

³⁷ Lindberg, L. N. (1970). Political Integration as a Multidimensional Phenomenon Requiring Multivariate Measurement. In: International Organization, Volume 24, Issue 2, pp. 648-731. Cambridge University Press. doi: 10.1017/S0020818300017501

³⁸ Wiener, A., Börzel, T. A., & Risse, T. (2019). European Integration Theory(A. Wiener, T. Risse, & T. A. Börzel, Eds.; Third ed.). Oxford University Press, USA.

³⁹ Ibid.

⁴⁰ Lippert, B. (2022, March 24). Ukraine's Membership Bid Puts Pressure on the European Union . Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik. doi:10.18449/2022C21

⁴¹ Wiener, A., Börzel, T. A., & Risse, T. (2019). European Integration Theory(A. Wiener, T. Risse, & T. A. Börzel, Eds.; Third ed.). Oxford University Press, USA.

⁴² Ibid.

⁴³ Ibid.

⁴⁴ Ibid.

⁴⁵ Ibid.

⁴⁶ Ibid.

⁴⁷ Ibid.

⁴⁸ Ibid.

⁴⁹ Goodland, R. (1995). The Concept of Environmental Sustainability. In: Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics ,Volume 26, pp. 1-24. JSTOR.

⁵⁰ Van der Hamsvoort, C., & Latacz-Lohmann, U. (1998). Sustainability: a review of the debate and an extension. In: The International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology , Volume 5, Issue 2, pp. 99-110. Taylor & Francis. doi: 10.1080/13504509809469974

⁵¹ Ibid.

⁵² Ibid.

⁵³ Ibid.

⁵⁴ Leal Filho, W. (2000). Dealing with misconceptions on the concept of sustainability. In: International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education , Volume 1, Issue 1, pp. 9-19. Emerald Insight. doi: 10.1108/1467630010307066

⁵⁵ Garrett, C. (2022, January 11). Greenwashing: definition and examples . Climate Consulting Selectra. Retrieved May 14, 2022, from https://climate.selectra.com/en/environment/greenwashing

⁵⁶ Becker-Olsen, K., & Potucek, S. (2013). Greenwashing. Encyclopedia of Corporate Social Responsibility . Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-28036-8_104

⁵⁷ Ibid.

⁵⁸ Bowen, F., & Aragon-Correa, J. A. (2014, June 13). Greenwashing in Corporate Environmentalism Research and Practice: The Importance of What We Say and Do. Organization and Environment , 27(2), 107 - 112.

SAGEjournals. doi: 10.1177/1086026614537078

⁵⁹ Hawkins, K., Uhera, S., & Bey, C. (2022, April 28). Greenwashing: Exploring the risks of misleading environmental marketing in the UK, Canada, France and Singapore . Lexology. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=e6ffe14f-afbe-4722-85d6-56c3e6f088ea

⁶⁰ Fox, W., & Bayat, M. S. (2007). A guide to managing research . Cape Town. Juta. p. 45

⁶¹ F, C. (2022, March 15). Deconstructionism in Literature: Theories & Examples | What is Deconstruction? - Video & Lesson Transcript . Study.com. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://study.com/learn/lesson/deconstructionism-literature-theories-examples.html

⁶² Ibid.

⁶³ Yin, R. K. (2009). Case Study Research. Design and Methods. In: Zeitschrift für Personalforschung / German Journal of Research in Human Resource Management , Volume 4, Issue 1, pp. 93-95. JSTOR.

⁶⁴ Baxter, P., & Jack, S. (2010, January). Qualitative Case Study Methodology: Study Design and Implementation for Novice Researchers. In: The Qualitative Report, Volume 13, Issue 4 pp. 544-558. ResearchGate. doi: 10.46743/2160-3715/2008.1573

⁶⁵ Ibid.

⁶⁶ Krusenvik, L. (2016). Using Case Studies as a Scientific Method: Advantages and Disadvantages. DiVA-Portal. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from http://www.diva-portal.se/smash/get/diva2:1054643/FULLTEXT01.pdf

⁶⁷ Carlén, I., Nunny, L., & Simmonds, M. P. (2021, February 4). Out of Sight, Out of Mind: How Conservation Is Failing European Porpoises. Small Cetacean Conservation: Current Challenges and Opportunities , Frontiers in Marine Science. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2021.617478

⁶⁸ Wu, Y. C. (1967, July). The Research Interview and Its Measurement. Oxford University Press. In: Social Work, Volume 12, Issue 3, pp. 79-87. JSTOR.

⁶⁹ N.A. (N.d.). Choosing an Interview Type for Qualitative Research . Complete Dissertation by Statistics Solution. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://www.statisticssolutions.com/choosing-an-interview-type-for-qualitative-research/

⁷⁰ European Commission. (N.d). EU Biodiversity Policy Development - Environment . European Commission. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/biodiversity/policy/index_en.htm

⁷¹ Hey, C. (N.d). EU Environmental Policies: A short history of the policy strategies . Archive of European Integration. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from http://aei.pitt.edu/98675/1/environ_policies...pdf

⁷² European Commission. (2019, December 31). Whales & Dolphins - Environment - European Commission . European Commission. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://ec.europa.eu/environment/biodiversity/animal_welfare/whaling.html

⁷³ Ibid.

⁷⁴ ASCOBANS. (N.d). About ASCOBANS. ASCOBANS | Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic, North East Atlantic, Irish and North Seas. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://www.ascobans.or g/en

⁷⁵ Carpenter, G., & Heisse, C. (2019, December 4). Landing the blame: overfishing in the Baltic Sea 2020. New Economics Foundation. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from

https://neweconomics.org/2019/12/landing-the-blame-overfishing-in-the-baltic-sea-2020

⁷⁶ Carlén, I. & Döhring, T. (2022, April 20). Semi-structured interview with expert Ida Carlén. personal. Zoom

⁷⁷ N.A. (n.d.). Blubber. National Geographic Society Resource Library. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://www.nationalgeographic.or g /encyclopedia/blubber/

⁷⁸ Carlén, I. & Döhring, T. (2022, April 20). Semi-structured interview with expert Ida Carlén. personal. Zoom

⁷⁹ Hamrén, H. (2020, October 7). ANALYSIS: Baltic Sea fishing has not gone according to (multiannual) plan . Baltic Eye. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://balticeye.org/en/fisheries/map-evaluation/

⁸⁰ Kanwischer, M., Noomi, A., Wernersson, A.-S., & et al. (2022, April 19). Substances of emerging concern in Baltic Sea water: Review on methodological advances for the environmental assessment and proposal for future monitoring - Open access publications in the SLU publication database . Swedish University for Agricultural Sciences Library. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://pub.epsilon.slu.se/27559/

⁸¹ European Commission. (2020, October 14). Chemicals strategy . European Commission. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://ec.europa.eu/environment/strategy/chemicals-strategy_en

⁸² Carlén, I. & Döhring, T. (2022, April 20). Semi-structured interview with expert Ida Carlén. personal. Zoom

⁸³ Ibid.

⁸⁴ Coalition Clean Baltic. (2021, October 20). Political ambition and actions fall short in the updated Baltic Sea Action Plan . Coalition Clean Baltic. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://www.ccb.se/political-ambition-and-actions-fall-short-in-the-updated-baltic-sea-action-plan

⁸⁵ Ibid.

⁸⁶ Ibid.

⁸⁷ Ibid.

⁸⁸ European Commission. (2022, February 9). February infringements package: key decisions . European Commission. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/inf_22_601 ⁸⁹ Nugent, N. (2006). The Government and Politics of the European Union (N. Nugent & W. E. Paterson, Eds.; Sixth Edition ed.). Palgrave MacMillan's. p.547

⁹⁰ Nugent, N. (2006). The Government and Politics of the European Union (N. Nugent & W. E. Paterson, Eds.; Sixth Edition ed.). Palgrave MacMillan's. p. 548

⁹¹ Ibid.

⁹² Ibid.

⁹³ Carlén, I. & Döhring, T. (2022, April 20). Semi-structured interview with expert Ida Carlén. personal. Zoom

⁹⁴ European Commission. (2021, May 19). EU biodiversity strategy for 2030 . Publications Office of the European Union. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from

https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/31e4609f-b91e-11eb-8aca-01aa75ed71a1

⁹⁵ Ibid.

⁹⁶ Ibid.

⁹⁷ Coalition Clean Baltic. (2022, October 26). Europe’s rivers nowhere near healthy by 2027 deadline – report . Coalition Clean Baltic. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://www.ccb.se/europes-rivers-nowhere-near-healthy-by-2027-deadline-report

⁹⁸ Carlén, I. & Döhring, T. (2022, April 20). Semi-structured interview with expert Ida Carlén. personal. Zoom

⁹⁹ N.A. (2020, August 24). Baltic Proper Harbour Porpoise in Focus . ASCOBANS. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://www.ascobans.or g /en/news/baltic-proper-harbour-porpoise-focus

¹⁰⁰ Ibid.

¹⁰¹ N.A. (2022, February 25). Baltic Sea conservation: EU acts to protect harbour porpoises . European Commission. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://ec.europa.eu/oceans-and-fisheries/news/baltic-sea-conservation-eu-acts-protect-harbour-porpoises-2022- 02-25_de

¹⁰² EUR-Lex, Document 32022R0303. (2022, February 25). Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2022/303 of 15 December 2021 amending Regulation (EU) 2019/1241 as regards measures to reduce incidental catches of the resident population of the Baltic Proper harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) in the Baltic Sea . EUR-Lex. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=uriserv:OJ.L_.2022.046.01.0067.01.ENG

¹⁰³ Ibid.

¹⁰⁴ Ibid.

¹⁰⁵ Ibid.

¹⁰⁶ N.A. (2022, February 18). European Commission takes important first step towards protecting Baltic Sea harbour porpoise . Seas at Risk. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://seas-at-risk.org/general-news/european-commission-takes-important-first-step-towards-protecting-baltic- sea-harbour-porpoise/

¹⁰⁷ Ritter, F. (2022, April 28). Stellnetz Verbot in der Ostsee: wie effektiv ist der neue Beschluss wirklich? Whale and Dolphin Conservation. Retrieved May 15, 2022, from https://de.whales.org/2022/04/28/stellnetzverbot-in-der-ostsee-wie-effektiv-ist-der-neue-beschluss-wirklich/?ut m_campaign=later-linkinbio-whalesorg_de&utm_content=later-26853932&utm_medium=social&utm_source=l inkin.bio

¹⁰⁸ EUR-Lex, Document 32022R0303. (2022, February 25). Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2022/303 of 15 December 2021 amending Regulation (EU) 2019/1241 as regards measures to reduce incidental catches of the resident population of the Baltic Proper harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) in the Baltic Sea . EUR-Lex. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=uriserv:OJ.L_.2022.046.01.0067.01.ENG

¹⁰⁹ Ibid.

¹¹⁰ YouMoveEurope. (n.d.). Save the Baltic harbour porpoise . Your campaign starts here | WeMove.EU. Retrieved May 19, 2022, from https://you.wemove.eu/campaigns/save-the-baltic-harbour-porpoise

¹¹¹ Carwardine, M. (2020). Handbook of Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises of the World . Princeton University Press.

¹¹² Evans, P. G. H. (2020). European Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises: Marine Mammal Conservation in Practice . Elsevier Science.Abstract